1 Kings

1 Kings

The title Kings reflects the content of 1 and 2 Kings, which trace the history of God's covenant people under Israel's kings.

Like the Books of Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings were one book in the Hebrew tradition. The division of the book first occurred in the Greek version, which translated Samuel and Kings as four consecutive books entitled First-Fourth Kingdoms. Jerome's Vulgate followed the Greek tradition of four books but with the title Kings. The English title Kings was derived from the Latin Vulgate. The English version followed the Greek and Latin practice of four books but with the Hebrew titles Samuel and Kings. The division of Kings was not commonly practiced in Hebrew until the first printed edition in 1488.

The Books of Kings are anonymous. Jewish tradition assigns their authorship to Jeremiah. Rabbinic custom attributed unnamed works to famous religious leaders of the era. Many critical scholars believe 1 and 2 Kings are the last books of a consecutive history from Deuteronomy through Kings. This account is called the "Deuteronomistic History" because many of the major themes of the Book of Deuteronomy recur in the larger history. Other scholars who reject this reconstruction believe that the authorship of Kings is independent of Deuteronomy (see "The Historical Books").

Most commentators agree that much of Kings was written before the destruction of Jerusalem (586 b.c.), although how much is disputed. There is agreement on the date for the completion of the work. The last historical reference in Kings is 562 b.c., the first full year of Babylon's Evil-Merodach's reign (2 Kgs. 25:27). The completion of the book must be after this date but before the return of the exiles to Judah in 539 b.c. since 1 and 2 Kings do not mention this event. The book is dated at about 550 b.c., during the exile.

The author used a variety of sources, many of them early, in the writing of Kings. The sources ranged from royal and temple records to stories about the prophets. Excerpts from three royal annals are specifically cited: "the book of the annals of Solomon" (1 Kgs. 11:41; see also 11:27), "the book of the annals of the kings of Israel" (for example, 1 Kgs. 14:19), and "the book of the kings of Judah" (for example, 1 Kgs. 14:29). The author, however, was not merely an editor but a composer whose work was based on these sources.

The structure of Kings is built upon a fixed framework having introductory and concluding formulas about each king's reign. The structure deviates from this framework with the inclusion of the Elijah and Elisha narrative cycles. The "deviation" points to the force of the prophets as shapers of the history of God's people.

Chronology of the Kings. Interpreters have a problem understanding how the chroniclers calculated the dates for the reigns of the kings. The reigns are dated by comparing the date a ruler began to reign with the number of years his counterpart in the other kingdom had reigned at that time. The length of the reign is provided for each king. However, there are problems reconciling the various dates. Additionally, Judah and Israel may have followed calendars beginning the new year at different times. Finally, there may have been differences in how the rulers counted the beginning of their reigns. Some began counting with their coronation, while others began counting only after their first year of reign. Therefore scholars have attempted reconstructions, including overlapping reigns of a father and son, to help explain the dates.

There is no consensus among scholars on all the dates of the kings. The differences are not so remarkable so as to impede our understanding of the historical background of the period. The dates followed here are those suggested by E. R. Thiele ( The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965]).

Theme. God established Solomon as David's successor over Israel; but Solomon sinned, and God "humbled David's descendants" (11:39) by dividing the nation into two kingdoms. The ten tribes of the Northern Kingdom retained the name Israel. The Southern Kingdom took the name of its dominant tribe, Judah.

1. Ruthless Succession (1:1-2:46)
2. Riches and Ruin (3:1-11:43)
3. Judah and Israel Divided (12:1-16:34)
4. Elijah and Micaiah (17:1-22:53)

Purpose and Theology.

1. First and Second Kings trace the history of Israel's monarchy during four tumultuous centuries from the reign of Solomon (971 b.c.) to Jehoiachin's imprisonment in Babylon (562 b.c.). They tell of Solomon's reign, including the building of the temple (1 Kgs. 1-11), the era of the Divided Kingdom to the fall of Samaria (1 Kgs. 12-2 Kgs. 17), and the last years of Judah down to the Babylonian exile (2 Kgs. 18-25).

2. This history of 1 and 2 Kings is not merely a political history of the monarchy. It is a prophetic interpretation of how each king affected the spiritual decline of Israel and Judah. The kings who had a greater religious impact receive more attention. For example, Omri was one of the most significant kings in the history of the ancient Near East, but his reign is only mentioned in a few verses (1 Kgs. 16:23-28). Much more is said about his son Ahab. The destruction of Israel and Judah was due to the idolatry advocated by their kings. By reciting this history from a theological perspective, the author both warned against idolatry and encouraged renewed commitment (8:33-34; 11:6,9-13; 13:34; 14:14-16; 18:39; 19:18).

3. First and Second Kings explain how history is governed by God's moral law. The theological perspective of Kings is the same as Deuteronomy's. Faithfulness to God's word is rewarded with blessing, but disobedience reaps God's judgment. This principle is demonstrated in the life of the two kingdoms whose rise and fall were dependent upon their obedience to the covenant of the Lord. The kings were evaluated on the basis of their fidelity to the Lord.

All the kings of the Northern Kingdom were condemned because of their idolatrous worship. In this they followed the ways of Israel's first king, Jeroboam, who introduced calf worship at Dan and Bethel (for example, 15:25-26,33-34). The kings of the Southern Kingdom, Judah, were approved if they followed after their father David (for example, 15:13). Only Hezekiah and Josiah met with full approval because they removed the high places and reformed the defiled worship of the temple (2 Kgs. 18:1-8; 22:1-2; 23:24-25).

4. The people of God are held responsible for their actions. The kings of David's descent experienced the same chastening for their sins as the evil kings of Israel (1 Kgs. 11:9; 14:22). Even a prophet, the "man of God," suffered death for his unfaithfulness (13:26).

5. God is portrayed as the sovereign Lord of history. The prophets were God's spokespersons who announced the rise and fall of kings and kingdoms because God controls their destinies (1 Kgs. 11:29-32; 13:1-4; 16:1-7; 20:13,28; 22:13-28).

6. God is faithful. Although Judah's kings sinned, the Lord upheld His promise to David (2 Sam. 7:16) by preserving his kingdom and retaining his descendants on the throne (1 Kgs. 11:31-36; 15:3-5; 2 Kgs. 25:27-30). The Lord was faithful to His prophets who heralded His message in the face of danger (1 Kgs. 19:3-4,18; 22:24-28).

Ruthless Succession (1:1-2:46)

This section completes the succession story of David begun in 2 Samuel 19-20. It depicts the ruthless struggle for power between Adonijah and Solomon as David neared his death. Only God's providential grace preserved the throne intact.

Solomon Becomes King (1:1-53). In his old age David needed the warmth and nursing of a servant girl named Abishag. The imminent death of the king explained the struggle that ensued between David's strongest allies. Adonijah, who was David's oldest living son (2 Sam. 3:4), led a conspiracy to make himself king. He was joined by Joab and the priest Abiathar at En Rogel, where they celebrated his impending enthronement. However, Nathan the prophet, Zadok the priest, Benaiah the captain of the king's bodyguard, and Solomon his brother were excluded.

Nathan knew that this meant banishment or death if Adonijah succeeded. Nathan encouraged Bathsheba to ask the king to fulfill his prior commitment to make Solomon king. Perhaps David had interpreted the special naming of Solomon (Jedidiah) by God as indicative of the Lord's choice (see 2 Sam. 12:24-25 and Deut. 17:15).

David ordered the anointing of Solomon at the spring Gihon. When Adonijah heard the people shout, "Long live King Solomon," he fled for safety in the tabernacle, where he grasped the horns of the altar. The "horns" were the four projectiles at the corners of the altar where the blood of the sacrifice was smeared. Solomon spared Adonijah but placed him under house arrest.

Solomon's Kingdom (2:1-46). David's deathbed instructions warned Solomon that only obedience to the Lord would secure his kingdom. He advised Solomon to execute Joab for murdering Abner and Amasa (see 2 Sam. 3:22-27; 20:4-10) and to deal swiftly with Shimei for his treachery (see 2 Sam. 16:5-14). David died after his forty-year rule (1011-971 b.c.), but the kingdom was secure in the hands of his successor.

The enemies of David and Solomon received their retribution. Adonijah was executed because he asked for the hand of Abishag, a member of the royal harem. Solomon interpreted this request as tantamount to staking another claim to the throne. Zadok replaced Abiathar as chief priest because the latter had sided with Adonijah. This banishment of Abiathar fulfilled God's judgment on his ancestor Eli's house (1 Sam. 2:27-36). Benaiah executed Joab and replaced him as captain of Solomon's armies. Shimei also was executed because he disregarded the limitations of his house arrest (1 Kgs. 2:36-46a). The narrator aptly stated the conclusion of this struggle: "The kingdom was now firmly established in Solomon's hands."

Riches and Ruin (3:1-11:43)

The second section of the book concerns Solomon's reign. It focuses on the wisdom he received from the Lord. He was able to assemble an impressive administration and to undertake numerous building projects, in particular the Jerusalem temple. He became an important international figure through wealth, trade, and politics. These accomplishments were God's blessing because of His covenant with David. But the author also tells how Solomon's apostasy caused Israel to lose all he had achieved.

God's Gift of Wisdom (3:1-28). Solomon married Pharaoh's daughter, which evidences Solomon's significance in the international community (7:8; 9:24). Solomon loved the Lord and obeyed Him as his father had, but he also practiced sacrifice at local shrines. This custom would become a snare when he turned to idolatrous worship at such high places (see Deut. 12:11-14).

Solomon requested in a dream the wisdom needed to serve the people of God. God granted him wisdom and more (1 Kgs. 3:4-15). An example of his wisdom was his ability to settle a dispute between two prostitutes. The people realized that his wisdom came from God.

Solomon's Wisdom (4:1-34). The list of officials, twelve administrative districts, and the necessary provisions for this bureaucracy show how God blessed Solomon in his administrative skills. This change in the tribal boundaries to twelve districts with their heavy taxation angered the northern tribes (see 12:1-17).

God gave Solomon great learning. The extent of his learning exceeded even the famous sages of Egypt and the East. He was gifted in the arts and also possessed unusual knowledge in the life sciences.

Temple Preparations (5:1-18). Like his father, Solomon was zealous for the reputation of the Lord. He allied himself with Hiram, king of Tyre in Phoenicia, and acquired from him building materials for the temple. When Hiram witnessed Solomon's wisdom, he praised the God of Israel. Solomon's laborers were drafted from among the Israelites. Samuel had warned Israel of such conscription under a king (1 Sam. 8:11-12,16).

Temple Construction (6:1-38). The importance of this event in the life of Israel is indicated by the careful dating of the event and the elaborate description of the temple's architectural plan. The date is the fourth year of Solomon's reign (966 b.c.). (See "Dates of the Exodus.") An architectural parallel to the Jerusalem temple's design is a Phoenician temple from about 850 b.c. recovered at Tell Ta'inat in Northern Syria. The Phoenician craftsmen, who were specialists, were employed for the temple (1 Kgs. 7:13-14; 2 Chr. 2:7,12-13). Between the description of the temple's external features and its luxuriant furnishings the author emphasized the Lord's promise to bless Solomon. The construction required seven and a half years. (See "The Temple.")

Temple Furnishings (7:1-51). The palace complex took almost twice as long to build as the temple. The proximity of Solomon's house to the Lord's house reflected the close relationship between God and king (see Ps. 2:7). Included with his own palace and the palace of Pharaoh's daughter was the costly Palace of the Forest of Lebanon with its elaborate halls (1 Kgs. 7:1-12).

The author was more interested in the construction of the temple and returned to describe its furnishings. Huram of Tyre, whose mother was a Hebrew, made the bronze furniture (see Bezalel, Exod. 31:3; 35:31). The bronze work consisted of the two pillars (named Jakin and Boaz) their capitals and designs, ten lavers, and the molten sea. The gold work included the altar, table of bread, lampstands, basins, and door sockets. (See the feature article "The Temple.") Solomon placed in the temple the gifts and spoils of war dedicated by David (2 Sam. 8:10-12).

Temple Dedication (8:1-66). This event was the highlight of Solomon's career just as the bringing of the ark into Jerusalem was David's (2 Sam. 6). Solomon was accomplishing what the Lord promised to David's descendants. After the ark was set under the cherubim in the holy of holies, the whole house was filled with a cloud. The glory of the Lord was so great that it prohibited entry into the temple (see Exod. 40:34-35). This meant that the presence of the Lord was in the temple. The ark was moved in the wilderness from place to place, but the temple provided a permanent dwelling for the ark.

Solomon showed in his prayer that he did not conceive of the Lord as bound to a sacred place like the deities of the Canaanites. The temple could not house the God of heaven. The "Name" of the Lord transcends a mere physical structure.

Solomon anticipated Israel's captivity. He prayed that God would hear the repentant prayers of His people and bring them back to their inheritance (see Deut. 28:15-68). Solomon exhorted the people to walk faithfully before the Lord. The dedicatory service concluded with a fourteen-day feast of worship and celebration.

The Lord Appears Again (9:1-9). In response to Solomon's prayer, the Lord appeared as He had at Gibeon (3:4-15). The Lord exhorted Solomon to be obedient and warned that disobedience would result in exile and a rejection of the temple. Second Kings describes how this happened to the two kingdoms of the divided monarchy (chaps. 17; 25).

Commercial Policies (9:10-28). Solomon's acquisition of wealth further demonstrated the fulfillment of God's promise to David. He acquired gold from King Hiram in exchange for twenty cities. Solomon's extensive building projects, including fortifying Jerusalem and other royal cities, required him to conscript slave labor and to install Israelites as overseers.

Queen of Sheba (10:1-29). Just as Hiram of Phoenicia praised God (5:7), the Queen of Sheba extolled the Lord because of Solomon's international fame. Sheba has been traditionally associated with South Arabia, which controlled the sea lanes between India and the East. God used Solomon's prestige to bring glory to Himself throughout the world.

Solomon's possession of gold, the extent of his shipping enterprises, and his military armament made him the most powerful king among the nations. He controlled the merchandising of horses from Kue (Cilicia) and of chariots from Egypt. The author attributed all of Solomon's splendor to the divine wisdom God gave him.

Solomon's Apostasy (11:1-43). Deuteronomy warned of forgetting God in prosperity (Deut. 6:10-12; 8:7-20). The troubles of Solomon's reign can be traced to the misuse of God's blessing. His success in international trade encouraged him to marry foreign wives for diplomatic reasons. He loved the Lord, but he also "loved many foreign women."

This love for foreign women grew greater than his love for the Lord's commandments. The wives caused him to pursue idolatrous worship. The hills of Jerusalem were dotted with high places sacred to the Phoenician fertility goddess Ashtoreth (see Deut. 16:21; Judg. 3:7; 1 Sam. 7:3-4), the god Molech of the Ammonites (Lev. 18:21), and Chemosh of Moab (Judg. 11:24).

The author concluded that "Solomon did evil in the eyes of the Lord" and did not obey "as David his father had done." Although David sinned against the Lord, his reign was not evil because he never fell into the contemptuous practice of idolatry. This practice brought God's judgment, which entailed Israel's division into two kingdoms. Solomon's wisdom and possessions were not subjected to the Lord. Therefore the Lord raised up three antagonists: Hadad the Edomite, Rezon of Aram/Syria, and Jeroboam of the tribe Ephraim. Ahijah, the Lord's prophet, incited Jeroboam to lead the ten northern tribes to secede from Jerusalem.

Solomon died after forty years of rule (971-931 b.c.). Rehoboam succeeded his father and reaped the whirlwind of God's judgment.

Judah and Israel Divided (12:1-16:34)

The book describes the period of antagonism between the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Jeroboam's revolt fulfilled God's judgment on Solomon's kingdom. Jeroboam's dynasty was condemned and usurped for its evil idolatry. Israel suffered the bloodshed of war and political coups. In all, nine dynasties ruled Israel in its two hundred years (931-722 b.c.). The kingdom of Judah enjoyed the stability of only one dynastic house since the Lord preserved the throne of David. Yet its kings also committed the idolatrous sins of their northern counterparts. The kings of Judah continually experienced war, and only righteous Asa had a long, prosperous rule.

Golden Calves (12:1-33). This chapter treats the watershed event in 1 Kings. King Rehoboam's refusal to rescind the oppressive forced labor and tax measures of his father, Solomon, split the kingdom. The ten tribes of Israel under Jeroboam seceded from Jerusalem, fulfilling the prophecy of Ahijah (see 11:29-39). Rehoboam attempted to reclaim his kingdom, but the prophetic word from Shemaiah prohibited him. Rehoboam's greatly reduced kingdom became known as Judah. Rehoboam's name means one who enlarges the people, but ironically he divided the people.

King Jeroboam built his military command at Shechem, an important religious and political site in Israel's history (Josh. 24). He knew that his political fortunes were tied to the religious life of the nation. He set up two golden calves at Dan and Bethel (see Hos. 8:4-6; 10:5; Amos 7:8-13). He encouraged local high places and authorized a non-Levitical priesthood. He initiated an annual feast at Bethel in the eighth month to rival the Feast of Tabernacles traditionally celebrated in the seventh month (1 Kgs. 12:25-33; see Leviticus 23:33-43). Jeroboam cried out, "Here are your gods, O Israel, who brought you out of Egypt" (1 Kgs. 12:28). These gods were patterned after the sacred bull of Egypt (see Exod. 32:4) and the calf worshiped by the Canaanites. Yet Jeroboam tied the worship of these calves to the Lord's deliverance of Israel from Egypt. If Jeroboam intended to continue the worship of the Lord, the calves were meant only as pedestals for Israel's invisible God. From the sacred writer's viewpoint these calves were signs of pagan idolatry.

Man of God (13:1-34). An unnamed prophet of the Lord delivered a message of judgment against Jeroboam's royal shrine at Bethel. He predicted that Josiah would destroy the Bethel worship site. This occurred in 621 b.c. when King Josiah of Judah initiated extensive religious reforms (2 Kgs. 23:15-17). When Jeroboam saw that he could not harm the prophet, he enticed him to stay. But the Lord had forbidden the prophet to eat or drink in the Northern Kingdom.

As the man of God left Bethel, an old prophet hoping to fellowship with him met the prophet and, using deceit, persuaded him to stay. The man of God foolishly agreed to dine with him. After the man of God left his host, a lion on the road killed him. When the old prophet discovered the body, he exclaimed, "It is the man of God who defied the word of the Lord." Ironically, the death of the man of God proved that his predictions about Bethel would "certainly come true."

Jeroboam's sinful altar was the reason for his downfall and ultimately the demise of Israel (see 14:16; 15:29; 2 Kgs. 17).

MAP: Divided Monarchies

Denouncing Jeroboam (14:1-20). Jeroboam's wife, disguised as another woman, visited Ahijah the prophet at Shiloh to learn the fate of her ailing son Abijam. The prophet was not fooled and denounced the house of her husband. He predicted the boy would die and the Lord would raise up another dynasty to cut off the progeny of Jeroboam (see 15:29). The prophet also foretold the exile of Israel. Jeroboam reigned twenty-two years (930-909 b.c.).

Chastening Rehoboam (14:21-31). Rehoboam squandered his heritage through spiritual apostasy. His reign was as wicked as Jeroboam's with its high places and male cult prostitutes. Although Judah was preserved because of the promise to David, the Lord in anger punished Rehoboam for his wickedness. He was afflicted by Shishak (Shoshenq), who was the founder of Egypt's Twenty-second Dynasty (945-924). An account of his wars is inscribed on the wall of the temple at Karnak. Rehoboam paid him handsomely from the gold accumulated by Solomon. Rehoboam reigned for seventeen years (930-913 b.c.).

Abijah and Asa 15:1-24). Abijah's three-year reign was evil, but God sustained his throne as a "lamp" in Jerusalem for the sake of David.

Asa, however, received a good report from the sacred historian. His reign of forty-one years (910-869 b.c.) included reforms, though he did not remove the high places. During Asa's reign, Baasha of Israel built a fortress near Jerusalem at Ramah. Asa entered a treaty with Ben-Hadad, king of Aram (Syria), who attacked Israel. Baasha left Ramah and dismantled the fortress.

Nadab of Israel (15:25-32). Nadab succeeded his father Jeroboam but reigned only two years (909-908 b.c.). He did evil in the sight of the Lord like his father. Baasha assassinated Nadab and killed the whole household of Jeroboam, fulfilling the prediction of Ahijah (see 14:10-11,14).

Baasha and Elah (15:33-16:14). The dynasty of Baasha was founded by assassination and ended in the same manner. The prophet Jehu condemned the evil of Baasha and foretold the demise of his house. He reigned for twenty-four years (908-886 b.c.) and was succeeded by his son Elah (886-885 b.c.). In a drunken stupor he was assassinated by Zimri, a court official. Zimri executed the whole family of Baasha just as Jehu had prophesied.

Zimri's Seven Days (16:15-20). Zimri's reign, the Third "Dynasty," had the distinction of being the shortest in the history of Israel. He ruled for seven days before he committed suicide in the flames of his palace. His demise was plotted by General Omri, who led an expedition against Zimri for his murder of King Elah.

The House of Omri (16:21-28). Omri defeated Tibni, a rival to the throne, and founded the Fourth Dynasty in Israel. His reign was only twelve years (885-874 b.c.). His fame was so great that a hundred years after his death the nation Israel was still called the "house of Omri." Omri had close ties with the Phoenicians, even marrying his son Ahab to the Tyrian princess Jezebel. Omri moved the capital of Israel from Tirzah to Samaria. There the kings of Israel ruled until its destruction by the Assyrians in 722 b.c.

Ahab and Jezebel (16:29-34). Ahab and Jezebel reigned for twenty-two years (874-853 b.c.). Together they attempted to make Israel a pagan nation devoted to Baal and Asherah, the deities of the Sidonians. Ahab erected an idol of Baal in Samaria and built an image of the Canaanite goddess Asherah. The sacred historian was unimpressed with Ahab's many political accomplishments. Twice he evaluated Ahab's rule as more evil than all his predecessors.

During the reign of Ahab, a man named Hiel, who was from the sinful city of Bethel, rebuilt the city of Jericho. His sons died under the curse Joshua pronounced upon anyone who restored the city (Josh. 6:26). The author included this account to show that the Lord's judgment on sin is certain. Ahab too would suffer for his sins.

Elijah and Micaiah (17:1-22:53)

The Elijah cycle of stories departs from the stereotyped reporting of the kings in chapters 12-16. The stories of the prophet Elijah show that the makers of Israel's history were not the kings but the prophets who dramatically shaped the future of each royal house.

Elijah's ministry occurred during Israel's greatest religious crisis under Ahab and Ahaziah (1 Kgs. 22:51-2 Kgs. 1:18). Ahab's reign declined because of wars with Aram and his theft of Naboth's vineyard.

Trouble for Ahab (17:1-24). Elijah the Tishbite is introduced in the book suddenly as an envoy from the Lord. He proclaimed to Ahab a great drought which would end only when Elijah gave the word (see Jas. 5:17-18). The drought was a refutation of Ahab's Baalism because Baal was reputed to be the god of rain and vegetation. This showed that the Lord was the true Lord of nature.

During the three-year drought, Elijah dwelt with a widow and her son in Zare-phath of Phoenicia, the native land of Jezebel, where Baal was worshiped. The drought had spread to Phoenicia, and the Lord used the prophet to provide food to this family. When the woman's son became ill and stopped breathing, Elijah prayed three times, and the Lord answered by raising up the boy. Because God did these miracles in Phoenicia, this showed that the Lord was the God of all nations and that Baal did not exist.

Choosing the Real King (18:1-46). For three years Ahab and his servant Obadiah desperately sought the elusive Elijah. Elijah unexpectedly met Obadiah in the road and promised Obadiah that he would see the king. When Ahab met the prophet, he called Elijah the "troubler of Israel." Yet it was Ahab who caused Israel's distress. Elijah proposed a contest with the prophets of Baal and Asherah at Mount Carmel.

The contest was for the benefit of the people to learn who truly ruled Israel—the Baals of Ahab and Jezebel or the Lord God of their fathers. The contest consisted of preparing a sacrifice and praying for the deity to prove his existence by answering with fire from heaven. Baal was reputed to be the god of storm and therefore should at least have been able to bring down fire (lightning).

The prophets of Baal prayed all morning, but there was no answer. Elijah ridiculed their pagan theology. Then in ecstatic frenzy they frantically slashed themselves to draw their god's attention (see Lev. 19:28; Deut. 14:1), but there was no answer. At the evening hour of sacrifice, it was Elijah's turn. He rebuilt the altar of the Lord and called upon God, identifying Him as the "God of Abraham, Isaac and Israel." Fire fell and the people exclaimed, "The Lord—he is God!" The people executed the evil prophets.

God also sent a great rainstorm to end the drought. The storm rained upon Ahab as he hurried to Jezreel. The hand of the Lord empowered Elijah to run ahead of Ahab's chariot to the city.

Elijah Hides at Horeb (19:1-21). Elijah's victory, however, turned into fear and depression. Surprisingly, Jezebel was not intimidated by Ahab's report of Elijah's deeds. She vowed to kill the prophet, who ran again but this time away from Jezebel to the desert. In despair the prophet prayed to die (see Num. 11:11-15; Job 6:8-9; Jon. 4:8). The angel of the Lord strengthened him with food, and he journeyed forty days and nights to a cave at Mount Horeb. It was upon the same Mount Horeb, another name for Mount Sinai, that the Lord had revealed Himself to Moses (see Exod. 3; 19).

Elijah complained that the Israelites had abandoned God and that he was the last prophet of the Lord. But Elijah was mistaken. God brought in succession a great wind, an earthquake, and a fire to ravage the mountain. But the prophet did not hear God in these events. Instead, Elijah heard the Lord in a small whisper. By this the prophet learned that sometimes God works in quiet ways.

There were in fact seven thousand who had not worshiped Baal. God sent Elijah to anoint three men who would ultimately destroy Ahab's house—Hazael of Aram, Jehu of Israel, and the prophet Elisha. The call of Elisha was the beginning of a large school of prophets (see 2 Kgs. 6:1-2).

Ahab's Victory (20:1-43). The Aramean king, Ben-Hadad, forged a coalition of thirty-two kings who besieged Samaria and held it hostage. Ahab, at the bidding of an unnamed prophet, secretly attacked the drunken Arameans, and the Lord granted Ahab's weaker armies a surprising victory. By this God demonstrated to Ahab that He was the true Lord of Israel. The next year the Arameans, believing that the Lord was a god only of the hills, attacked the city of Aphek located in a valley. God again granted victory to show that He ruled over hill and valley. In spite of God's grace, evil Ahab violated the rules of holy war and spared the life of Ben-Hadad. The Lord sent another prophet to the king to condemn Ahab for his neglect of the Lord's word. Ahab confirmed the truth of the message by announcing his own judgment.

Naboth's Vineyard (21:1-29). The evil plot against Naboth brought God's wrath against Ahab, including the deaths of Jezebel and his son Joram (1 Kgs. 22:37-38; 2 Kgs. 9:24-26,30-37). Because of the law of Moses, Naboth refused the king's request to acquire his vineyard. The law taught that God was the owner of Canaan and that the people, as its tenants, could not dispose of their land (Lev. 25:23; Num. 27:1-11; 36:1-12). Ahab, perhaps respecting the law of God more highly than Jezebel, only sulked about the refusal whereas Jezebel took steps to steal the land. She sent letters to powerful leaders of Jezreel to entrap Naboth with false charges of sedition and blasphemy. He was executed for these crimes, and his land was gobbled up by Jezebel and Ahab.

Yet their murder of Naboth did not go unnoticed. Elijah delivered God's denunciation in the very vineyard Jezebel conspired to get. Although Ahab was the passive player in this evil deed, he was held responsible for failing to stop his wicked wife. The prophet predicted that in the place the dogs licked the blood of Naboth, Ahab's blood also would be the delight of the city's stray dogs. Jezebel also would be a delicacy for the ravenous hounds of Jezreel.

Ahab repented when he heard the word of the Lord. Though he was the most wicked man of Israel, God took mercy on him and prolonged his life. This postponement did not mean, however, that God had changed His opinion on the character of Ahab's reign (see 22:37-38).

Micaiah's Prophecy and Ahab's Death (22:1-53). A monument of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III tells how he fought the united armies of Ahab and Ben-Hadad at Qarqar on the Orontes River in 853 b.c. (see 20:34). The result was probably a stalemate. When the Assyrians retreated, Ben-Hadad renewed his hostilities by capturing Ramoth Gilead near the border of Israel (see 2 Kgs. 10:32-33). Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, joined Ahab to fight the Arameans. Jehoshaphat was not satisfied with the prophets at Ahab's court and insisted on hearing from the prophet of the Lord. Micaiah, brought from Ahab's prison, predicted that Ahab would be killed in defeat. Ahab ridiculed his prophecy. But Micaiah told him how in a vision he had seen God send a deceiving spirit to mislead Ahab's counselors.

This vision does not mean that Micaiah believed God was a liar. This vision was a pictorial way to explain that God had permitted the false prophets to mislead Ahab to effect His divine judgment.

Ahab went into the battle disguised, but God found him through a bowman's arrow! Ahab's bloody chariot was washed in Samaria, and his blood was licked by dogs, just as the word of the Lord had said (see 21:19).

Jehoshaphat's twenty-five-year reign continued the religious reforms of his father Asa. Meanwhile, Ahaziah followed his father Ahab by worshiping Baal. His two-year reign was shortened by the judgment of God (see 2 Kgs. 1:1-18).

Theological and Ethical Significance. First Kings, like Deuteronomy, warns against forgetting God in times of economic prosperity. Having known material abundance, many today have left God out of their lives as the ancient Israelites did. Having abandoned faith, many have compromised their values to those of pagan society. The collapse of Israelite society warns of the consequences of sin.

First Kings reveals the power of the word of God in shaping history. The courage of those, like Elijah, whose hearts were captive to the word of God challenges today's Christians to let their presence be felt. After the prophet Micaiah had seen Yahweh's throne room, he was not impressed by King Ahab's threats. Those of us who have experienced the height and depth and breadth of God's love in Christ Jesus should be bold to speak God's word of judgment and grace to our world.

The history of Israel and Judah is the story of a people's failure to fulfill God's purpose for them. God, however, is faithful in spite of human failure. Though we are called to obedience, our hope lies in God's grace. We see this grace most clearly in Jesus Christ, "who as to his human nature was a descendant of David" (Rom. 1:3).

Questions for Reflection

1. How does prayer affect the lives of God's people?
2. How is wisdom more valuable than wealth?
3. How should God's people use their prosperity?
4. In what ways does God use wicked instruments to achieve His purposes?

Sources for Additional Study

House, Paul R. 1, 2 Kings. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995.

McNeeley, Richard I. First and Second Kings. Chicago: Moody, 1978.

Millard, Alan. 1 Kings–2 Chronicles. Ft. Washington, PA: Christian Literature Crusade. London: Scripture Union, 1985.

Vos, Howard F. 1, 2 Kings. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.