Daniel

Daniel

The Book of Daniel has traditionally been attributed to Daniel on the basis of explicit statements made within its pages (9:2; 10:2) and Christ's testimony (Matt. 24:15). Daniel lived in Babylon during the sixth century b.c. and served both Babylonian and Persian rulers.

Modern critics have denied the historical value of the book for several reasons. They regard it as a combination of court legends and apocalyptic visions, the latter being characteristic of intertestamental Jewish literature (see further discussion on "Literary Form").

Only a few observations related to the historical value of the book can be made.

1. The presence of miraculous events, no matter how incredible they may seem (the preservation of Daniel's friends in the fiery furnace and of Daniel in the lions' den), does not necessarily call in question the book's historical value. The sovereign God of the universe does at times intervene in history in supernatural ways, the prime example being the resurrection of Jesus Christ.

2. The book's portrayal of Darius the Mede, while problematic in many respects, does not necessarily prove it is nonhistorical. Some interpreters have used this as proof of the book's fictional nature, pointing out that Cyrus, not this otherwise unknown Darius son of Xerxes, became the king of Babylon following its fall. Others have proposed that Darius may be another name for Cyrus (in this view Dan. 6:28 is translated, "So Daniel prospered during the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian"). Still others suggest Darius was Gubaru, who served as the governor of Babylon under Cyrus.

3. Scholars have debated whether the Aramaic used in the book reflects an early date (the time of Daniel) or late date (about 165 b.c.).

4. Chapter 11 is a watershed in the debate over the nature of the book's prophecies. Many modern interpreters understand it as after-the-fact "prophecy" and use it to pinpoint the book's date to 165 b.c. Verses 2-20 contain a rather detailed and accurate account of Palestinian history from the time of Cyrus (about 538 b.c.) to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 b.c.). Verses 21-35 accurately reflect Antiochus's career, but verses 36-45 do not. Thus, it is argued, the author must have written in 165 b.c., after the events accurately recorded in the chapter but before the inaccurate predictions pertaining to Antiochus.

Others regard it as a prime example of supernatural, predictive prophecy. These interpreters argue that 11:36-45 does not contain unfulfilled predictions about Antiochus Epiphanes. Instead it describes the career of a yet future ruler who resembles Antiochus. Such foreshadowing and blending is typical of Old Testament prophecy.

Historical Background. Daniel and his friends were taken into exile in 605 b.c. They served mighty Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled the Babylonian empire until 562. Nebuchadnezzar's successors were Evil-Merodach, Neriglissar, Labashi-Marduk, and Nabonidus. Nabonidus spent much of his reign in Tema worshiping the moon god. His son Belshazzar served as his vice-regent. Though the Book of Daniel calls Belshazzar "king," it hints that he was really second in command in the kingdom (5:7,16). Cyrus the Persian conquered Babylon in 539 and made Gubaru governor over the city. Daniel retained a high civil office under the Persians.

Theme. Daniel portrays God as the sovereign Ruler of the universe, who controls the destinies of both pagan empires and His exiled people. He revealed His mighty power to the kings of Babylon and Persia, forcing them to acknowledge His supremacy. He revealed to Daniel His future plans to restore His people Israel once the times of the Gentiles had run their course.

Literary Form. How we classify the narratives of Daniel depends on our view of their historical value. Those who regard the stories as fictional classify them as court legends. Those who accept their historical value regard them as biographical accounts of Daniel and his friends.

Daniel's visions can be categorized as apocalyptic literature. Because later examples of such literature are falsely attributed to some famous person from the past (pseudepigraphic) and contain after-the-fact prophecy, some assume that Daniel shares these characteristics. Others acknowledge some literary similarities but argue for Daniel as genuine prophecy.

The structure of the book can be viewed in different ways. Chapters 1-6 are largely narratives, while chapters 7-12 contain visions of future events. At the same time, 1:1-2:4a; 8-12 are written in Hebrew, while 2:4b-7:28 are in Aramaic. The explanation for the bilingual nature of the book is uncertain. Some observe that the Aramaic section focuses on Gentile rulers and nations, while the Hebrew sections are primarily concerned with Israel. Others explain the variation as a structural device. Daniel 2:4b-7:28 is set off from the surrounding sections because it is a symmetrically arranged unit, displaying a mirror structure (chaps. 2 and 7 correspond thematically, as do chaps. 3 and 6 and chaps. 4 and 5).

1. Experiences of Daniel and His Friends in Babylon (1:1-6:28)
2. Visions and Revelations of Future Events (7:1-12:13)

Purpose and Theology. The God of Daniel is the sovereign Ruler of the world, who raises up and brings down rulers and determines long beforehand the future of nations. He rewards the faithfulness of His devoted servants and protects them, even when they are far from their homeland. His sovereignty is especially apparent in His dealings with Nebuchadnezzar. To him God revealed future history, demonstrated His power to deliver His own, and gave a vivid lesson on the dangers of pride. Nebuchadnezzar was forced to acknowledge the sovereignty of Daniel's God. The Lord also displayed His sovereignty to subsequent rulers. He announced in dramatic fashion Belshazzar's downfall for his arrogance and lack of respect for the temple vessels. He demonstrated to Darius His power to deliver His faithful servants from even the worst crises.

Through Daniel's visions the Lord demonstrates His sovereignty over history. Human empires rise and fall, but the Lord ultimately shatters Gentile opposition to His program and establishes His kingdom on earth.

Daniel and His Friends (1:1-6:28)

Remaining Faithful (1:1-21).

Daniel and His Friends Chosen to Be Court Officials (1:1-7). In 605 b.c. the Babylonians marched against Judah and besieged Jerusalem. They took some temple articles to Babylon, as well as some of Judah's finest young men. Nebuchadnezzar ordered Ashpenaz, his chief court official, to choose the very best of these men and train them for the king's service. Among this group were Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah. They were given Babylonian names, trained in Babylonian language and literature, and placed on a special diet.

Daniel and His Friends Refuse Unclean Food (1:8-16). Daniel regarded the food offered by the Babylonians to be defiling. The Mosaic law forbade God's people to eat unclean animals or flesh that had not been drained of blood. Portions of the wine and meat presented by Ashpenaz may have been offered to idols.

Daniel convinced the Babylonians to allow him and his three friends to follow a different diet, consisting only of vegetables and water. After a ten-day trial period they looked even healthier than those who were following the diet prescribed by the king. Consequently they were not forced to eat the king's food or drink his wine.

God Rewards Daniel and His Friends (1:17-21). In response to Daniel's and his friends' faithfulness, the Lord gave them superior intellect and gave Daniel the ability to interpret dreams and visions. When the king interviewed the trainees, he found Daniel and his friends to be the cream of the crop and appointed them to his service. Their abilities far surpassed those of the king's wise men and diviners.

The Dream Interpreted (2:1-49). The King Seeks a Dream Interpreter (2:1-16). During the second year of his reign King Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream. He summoned his wise men and diviners and, perhaps to ensure credibility, commanded them to reveal the dream's contents, as well as its interpretation. If they failed, they would be executed; if they succeeded, they would be richly rewarded. The diviners, understandably shaken, objected that the king's request was without precedent and that no one could know what another man dreamed. In anger the king decreed that all the royal diviners be put to death.

Daniel Interprets the King's Dream (2:17-49). When Daniel heard what had happened, he and his friends prayed to the Lord for wisdom to know and interpret the dream so that their lives might be spared. When the Lord revealed the dream to Daniel in a night vision, he praised the Lord as the sovereign Ruler of the universe, who is the source of all wisdom.

When Daniel went before the king, he was careful to give God the credit. He told the king that the Lord had revealed to him both the contents and interpretation of the dream. In his dream Nebuchadnezzar had seen a large statue. Its head was made of gold, its chest and arms of silver, its belly and thighs of bronze, its legs of iron, and its feet of iron and clay. A large rock then smashed the feet of the statue, causing it to tumble and shatter. The rock then grew into a large mountain.

Daniel explained to Nebuchadnezzar that the dream pertained to world history. The statue represented successive world kingdoms, which would ultimately be displaced by God's kingdom. Nebuchadnezzar's Babylonian empire was the golden head. The silver chest and arms represented a kingdom that would follow. Just as silver is inferior to gold, so the glory of this kingdom would not match that of Babylon. The bronze portions of the statue symbolized a third world kingdom, while the iron legs represented a fourth empire, which, like iron, would be especially powerful. The mixture of clay and iron indicated that this empire would eventually divide and become vulnerable to attack. God's kingdom (represented by the rock that grew into a mountain) would conquer this empire, bringing human rule to a violent end. Like a mountain His kingdom would be incapable of destruction and would exist forever.

Scholars differ over the identification of the final three kingdoms represented in the vision. Some see the silver portions of the statue as the combined Medo-Per-sian empire, the bronze parts as Alexander's Greek empire, and the iron legs as Rome. Others see the successive kingdoms as Media, Persia, and Greece.

When Daniel finished, Nebuchadnezzar praised the Lord as the sovereign God who reveals wisdom. He rewarded Daniel and elevated him and his friends to prominent positions in the empire's government.

Facing Death (3:1-30). Daniel's Friends Refuse to Bow to the King's Image (3:1-18). Nebuchadnezzar made a huge, gold image. The image may have represented his sovereign authority or one of his gods. The king ordered all of his subjects to attend a dedication ceremony for the image. At a designated time they were to bow down to the image. All who refused to worship the image would be thrown into a fiery furnace. When Daniel's friends refused to bow down to the image, the angry king gave them an ultimatum and warned them of the consequences of disobedience. They explained that their loyalty to the Lord prevented them from worshiping images. They also told the king that the Lord was able to deliver them from the furnace if He so desired.

Daniel's Friends Delivered from the Furnace (3:19-30). After ordering the furnace to be heated to its maximum temperature, Nebuchadnezzar had Daniel's friends tied up and thrown in. The fire was so hot that its flames killed the soldiers who threw them in. However, when Nebuchadnezzar looked into the furnace, he saw the three men walking around unbound, accompanied by an angelic being. When the king ordered them out of the furnace, they were completely unharmed. Nebuchadnezzar praised the Lord for delivering His faithful servants, decreed that anyone who slandered the Lord be executed, and promoted the three men.

Dream of a Large Tree (4:1-37). This chapter begins and ends with Nebuchadnezzar praising the Lord (4:1-3,34-37). In the intervening verses he related a personal experience through which he came to a greater realization of God's sovereignty and learned the dangers of pride.

The King Reports His Dream to Daniel (4:1-18). While lying in his palace, the king had a terrifying dream. When his wise men and diviners were unable to interpret it, he summoned Daniel. In his dream Nebuchadnezzar saw a large fruit tree with beautiful leaves. Animals found shelter in its shade, and birds lodged in its branches. An angelic being then commanded that the tree be cut down and that the stump be bound with iron and bronze. The angel then announced that the man represented by the stump would be overtaken by insanity and would live outdoors like an animal for a specified period of time ("seven times" may refer to seven years; see 7:25).

Daniel Interprets the Dream (4:19-27). Daniel informed Nebuchadnezzar that the tree represented none other than the king himself. Though great and mighty, the king would be brought low. For a period of time he would be plagued by an extreme form of insanity (known as boanthropy or lycanthropy) and would actually behave like an animal. Once he was sufficiently humbled, Nebuchadnezzar would be restored to his throne.

The Dream Comes True (4:28-37). One year later, Nebuchadnezzar's dream was fulfilled. As he proudly looked about the great city of Babylon, a voice from heaven announced to him that he was about to be humbled. He began acting like an animal, and his hair and nails grew exceedingly long. Finally, God restored his sanity, causing Nebuchadnezzar to praise Him publicly and warn others of the consequences of pride.

Babylon Falls (5:1-31). The events of chapter 5 occurred in 539 b.c., twenty-three years after Nebuchadnezzar's death. Belshazzar was now ruling Babylon in the absence of his father, Nabonidus (see introduction).

A Mysterious Message on a Wall (5:1-12). Belshazzar held a great banquet for all his nobles and their wives. He ordered that wine be served in the golden and silver goblets Nebuchadnezzar had taken from the Lord's temple in Jerusalem years before. While Belshazzar and his guests drank from the goblets, a hand appeared in thin air and wrote a mysterious message on one of the palace walls. The frightened king sent for his wise men and diviners and decreed that whoever was able to interpret the message would be elevated to third in the kingdom. (Technically speaking Nabonidus was still the king, with Belshazzar being his vice-regent.) When they were unable to decipher the message, the queen (or queen mother) reminded Belshazzar of Daniel, who years before had gained a reputation as a skillful interpreter of dreams and riddles.

Daniel Interprets the Message (5:13-31). When summoned by the king, Daniel agreed to interpret the writing, though he declined the king's gifts. Before interpreting the message, however, he reminded Belshazzar of how God had humbled proud Nebuchadnezzar. He also denounced the king for his arrogance and for his disrespect for the temple vessels. Finally, Daniel turned to the cryptic message, which read, "Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin." He interpreted the message as being an ominous warning of impending judgment on Belshazzar's kingdom. "Mene," meaning mina (fifty shekels), sounds like a related word meaning numbered. Belshazzar's days were numbered and his reign about to come to an end. In similar fashion "tekel," meaning shekel, was a play on a related word meaning weighed. Belshazzar had been weighed like a shekel on the scales of divine justice and had been found lacking. "Parsin," meaning half-shekels (in 5:28 the singular form "peres" is used) was taken as a play on a related word meaning divided. Furthermore, it sounds like Persian. Belshazzar's kingdom would be divided between the Medes and Persians. This prophecy of Belshazzar's demise was fulfilled that very night.

Daniel Delivered (6:1-28). Daniel Defies the King's Decree (6:1-15). Daniel continued to prosper under Persian rule. Darius the Mede made him one of three administrators over the 120 districts within his jurisdiction. Daniel was so successful that he aroused the jealousy of other administrators and officials. Knowing that Daniel was loyal to his God, they devised a plot by which they hoped to have him executed for treason. Appealing to Darius's vanity, they convinced the king to issue a decree commanding his subjects to worship him exclusively for one month. Violators would be thrown to the lions. When Daniel defied the decree and openly prayed to the Lord, the conspirators reported him to the king. Realizing he had been tricked, Darius tried to absolve Daniel of guilt; but Daniel's enemies reminded the king that royal decrees could not be altered.

Daniel in the Lion's Den (6:16-28). Darius had no other alternative than to throw Daniel to the lions. A stone was placed over the entrance to the den, and the king sealed it with his own ring so that it might not be disturbed. After a long, restless night Darius returned to the den in the morning. To his amazement Daniel was still alive. Daniel explained that the Lord had miraculously preserved him by closing the lions' mouths. The king ordered that Daniel be lifted from the den and his accusers thrown in. Darius then issued an official statement praising Daniel's God as the sovereign Lord of the universe, who miraculously delivers His servants.

Visions and Revelations (7:1-12:13)

Four Beasts (7:1-28). The vision recorded in this chapter occurred in Belshazzar's first year of coregency (about 556-553 b.c.), prior to the events recorded in chapters 5-6.

Daniel Reports the Vision (7:1-14). Daniel saw four beasts emerge in succession from the churning sea. The first resembled a lion but also had the wings of an eagle. As Daniel watched, the creature's wings were torn off, and it stood on two feet like a human. It also was given a heart like that of a person. The second beast resembled a bear with three ribs in its mouth. The third beast looked like a leopard with four wings and four heads. The fourth beast, the most terrifying of all, had iron teeth with which it ripped its victims to bits. It also possessed ten horns, three of which were uprooted before another horn that sprouted up among them. This other horn had human eyes and spoke arrogant words.

In this vision Daniel also saw God, called the "Ancient of Days," seated on His throne with thousands of His servants attending Him. His clothing and hair were white, and His throne, a flame of fire. Books were opened as God prepared to sit in judgment on the fourth beast. The beast, along with its boastful little horn, were cast into the fire and destroyed. A human figure, called "one like a son of man," then appeared in the clouds and approached the divine throne, where he was granted authority to rule the world.

The Interpretation of the Vision (7:15-28). One of the heavenly attendants explained the significance of the vision to Daniel. The four beasts, like the statue seen in Nebuchadnezzar's dream (Dan. 2), represented four successive empires that would rule the earth. The ten horns of the fourth beast, which was of particular interest to Daniel, represented ten kings who would arise from the fourth empire. The little horn symbolized another ruler, who would supplant three of the ten. This little horn would oppose God and persecute His people for a specified period of time (perhaps three and a half years; compare "a time, times and half a time," 7:25). After this the Lord would destroy this ruler and establish His kingdom.

As in chapter 2, interpreters differ about the identification of the four kingdoms. On analogy with chapter 2, the lion probably represents Babylon. The bear is often associated with the Medo-Persian Empire, with the three ribs understood as symbols of its three major victims, Lydia, Babylon, and Egypt. The leopard may very well represent Greece, its four heads reflecting the fourfold division of Alexander's kingdom after his death (8:8,21-22). The final beast may represent Rome, with its ten horns symbolizing a later manifestation of this empire prior to the coming of God's kingdom. In this case the little horn may be equated with the New Testament figure of the Antichrist. However, as with chapter 2, others identify the successive kingdoms as Babylon, Media, Persia, and Greece, with the little horn being associated with Antiochus Epiphanes (see Dan. 8; 11).

The identification of the "one like a son of man" has also occasioned much debate. Many see the title as messianic. Others understand the figure to represent humanity, God's chosen people, or angelic beings (with Michael sometimes being specified as the angel in view).

A Ram and Goat (8:1-27). This vision, like that of chapter 7, came during the reign of Belshazzar.

Daniel Reports the Vision (8:1-14). Daniel saw a vision of a ram with two horns of unequal length, the longer of which grew up after the other. The ram charged westward, northward, and southward, conquering all who opposed it. However, a goat with a long horn then came from the west, shattered the ram's two horns, and trampled the ram into the ground. None could stand before the goat, but at the height of his power his horn was broken and replaced by four small horns. From one of these horns grew another horn that became increasingly strong and extended its power southward and eastward. It challenged the hosts of heaven, oppressed God's people, and disrupted the sacrifices in the Lord's temple.

The Interpretation of the Vision (8:15-27). The angel Gabriel revealed the interpretation of the vision to Daniel. The two-horned ram represented the Medo-Persian empire, and the goat, the Greek empire (of Alexander). The four horns reflected the fourfold division of Alexander's empire following his untimely death. The little horn represented Antiochus Epiphanes, the Syrian ruler (about 175-164 b.c.) who opposed God's people and desecrated the temple.

Seventy Sevens (9:1-27). Daniel's Intercessory Prayer (9:1-19). In 539-538 b.c., immediately after the Persian conquest of Babylon, Daniel prayed to the Lord on behalf of exiled Israel. Daniel realized that the seventy-year period of Judah's desolation prophesied in Jeremiah 25:11-12 was soon approaching its end. (The prophecy is dated to 605 b.c. [see Jer. 25:1], the year when Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time and carried away the first group of exiles to Babylon. If one assumes that the seventy-year period began in that year, then it would be over in 535 b.c.)

Addressing God as Israel's faithful covenant Lord, Daniel confessed the nation's sinful and rebellious condition and acknowledged that they had justly suffered the covenant curses threatened by Moses. He then asked the Lord to forgive the nation's sins and once again look with favor on desolate Jerusalem.

Gabriel Reveals and Interprets the Vision (9:20-27). While Daniel prayed, Gabriel appeared to him and announced that "seventy sevens" (490 years according to many) were decreed for Israel and Jerusalem, after which time atonement would be made for their sins. He then explained the chronology of these "seventy sevens." Sixty-nine sevens would separate the time of the decree to rebuild Jerusalem and the coming of the Messiah ("Anointed One"). Sometime after this the Messiah would be "cut off" and the city destroyed by the "people of the ruler who will come." During the seventieth seven this ruler would make a covenant with God's people, which he would then violate halfway through the period.

Understandably this somewhat cryptic vision poses several difficulties and has been interpreted in a variety of ways. Some view the numbers as symbolic, while others take them quite literally and produce elaborate mathematical explanations of their fulfillment. Among the latter, some even contend that this prophecy pinpoints the date of Christ's crucifixion.

Gabriel's Appearance (10:1-12:13). Daniel's Vision of the Angel (10:1-11:1). In 536 b.c. Daniel received his final vision. While standing by the Tigris River, he saw a radiant angelic being whose voice thundered. Totally overwhelmed by the vision, Daniel fell into a deep trance. The angel told Daniel to stand up and encouraged him not to fear. He then explained that he had been delayed in coming by the "prince of Persia," apparently a reference to an angel who exercised jurisdiction over the nation Persia. After a three-week struggle, Michael intervened, allowing this angel to come to Daniel. He would soon be off again to fight against the prince of Persia, but before leaving he revealed to Daniel certain future events.

The Angel Outlines Future Events (11:2-12:4). Daniel 11:2-35 outlines the course of Palestinian history from Daniel's time to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. Verse 2 refers to the four Persian rulers who would succeed Cyrus: Cambyses (530-522 b.c.), Pseudo-Smerdis (522), Darius I (522-486), and Xerxes (486-465). It alludes to Xerxes' campaign against Greece. Verses 3-4 then refer to Alexander the Great (336-323) and the division of his kingdom. Verses 5-20 outline the relationship between the Seleucids ("the king of the North"), who ruled Syria, and the Ptolemies ("the king of the South"), who ruled Egypt during the period 321-175. Verses 21-35 focus on the career of Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164), mentioning among other things his Egyptian campaigns and mistreatment of the Jews. Verses 32-35 anticipate the Maccabean revolt against Antiochus.

Most of the details of verses 36-45 do not correspond to Antiochus's career. For example, Antiochus died in Persia, not Palestine (see v. 45). Consequently, some scholars label these verses as unfulfilled "prophecy" and understand the preceding verses (vv. 1-35) as "prophecy" after the fact (see introduction). Others understand a switch in perspective beginning in verse 36. The description merges into a portrayal of the Antichrist, whose hostility to God and His people was foreshadowed in the career of Antiochus.

The final verses of this section (12:1-4) anticipate a time of crisis for Israel in which Michael, the nation's guardian angel, would intervene on their behalf. Reference is made to a general resurrection of the righteous and evil.

Daniel's Final Vision and Instructions (12:4-13). The angel instructed Daniel to seal up the revelation until the end times. Daniel then saw two other angelic beings standing by the river, both of whom were clothed in linen. One asked how long it would be before the revelation was fulfilled. The other responded that "a time, times, and a half a time" (probably three and a half years) would pass between the breaking of Israel's power and the fulfillment of the vision. Verse 11 apparently gives a more exact measurement of this period (1,290 days). The significance of the figure given in verse 12 (1,335 days) is unclear. In conjunction with verse 11, it implies that there would be an additional forty-five-day period before the complete fulfillment of the vision.

Theological and Ethical Significance. Daniel stresses God's sovereignty over world history. History unfolds as part of God's plans and is moving toward God's predetermined goals. Earthly des-pots wield their cruel power for only a short time. God is in control, and He has set an end to the time His people have to suffer. God's goals for human history include the deliverance of His people from oppression, the resurrection, judgment, and the establishment of His everlasting kingdom. Daniel thus calls God's people of every time to perseverance and hope. Like Daniel and his friends, today's believers are tempted to compromise their values and worship that which is not God. Daniel calls Christians to live out their faith in a hostile world whatever the cost.

Questions for Reflection

1. What lessons can we learn from Daniel and his friends?
2. In what ways does God demonstrate His sovereignty in this book? What relevance does the doctrine of God's sovereignty have for the modern Christian and for the church?
3. What is the purpose for the book's extensive use of symbolism? How do the symbolism and vivid imagery contribute to the overall message of the book?
4. In what ways does this book offer comfort and encouragement to Christians?

Sources for Additional Study

Archer, G. L., Jr. "Daniel." The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Vol. 7. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.

Baldwin, J. G. Daniel. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1978.

Miller, Stephen. Daniel. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994.

Wood, L. A Commentary on Daniel. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973.

Young, E. J. The Prophecy of Daniel. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1949.