Ezekiel

Ezekiel

Ezekiel was among the exiles taken to Babylon in 597 b.c. He received his prophetic call in 593 and prophesied between 593 and 571, as the thirteen specific dates given in the book indicate.

Historical Background. For events leading up to the fall of Jerusalem in 586 b.c., see the introduction to "Jeremiah." Theme. Ezekiel warned his fellow exiles against any wishful thoughts that Jerusalem might be spared. As portrayed in Ezekiel's visions, the glory of the Lord had departed from the city, leaving it vulnerable to destruction. Judah would pay for its rebellion against the Lord. However, the Lord would eventually restore His people to the land and reestablish pure worship in a new temple.

Literary Form. Among the major literary forms appearing in the book are prophetic visions, reports of symbolic acts, parables, and messages of judgment and salvation. Ezekiel used poetic form less than Isaiah and Jeremiah.

Ezekiel 1-24 focuses on the approaching fall of Jerusalem. Chapters 25-32 prophesy judgment upon the surrounding nations, while chapters 33-48 picture the miraculous restoration of the nation and its worship system.

1. Judgment upon Judah (1:1-24:27)
2. Judgment upon Nations (25:1-32:32)
3. Restoration of Israel (33:1-48:35)

Purpose and Theology. Like the many prophets who preceded him, Ezekiel denounced God's people for their sins and warned that judgment was imminent. As a priest Ezekiel was particularly interested in the temple. In a vision he saw the glory of God leaving the polluted temple and abandoning the defiled city. Through speeches, symbolic acts, and parables Ezekiel prophesied the fall of the city to the Babylonians and the exile of its people.

God's judgment would not be limited to His people. He would also punish the hostile surrounding nations, especially proud Tyre and Egypt.

Though God's people were scattered in exile, He had not abandoned them. He would miraculously restore them to their land, reunite Israel and Judah under an ideal Davidic ruler, establish a new covenant of peace with them, and annihilate once and for all their enemies. Ezekiel's prophecy ends with an idealized vision of a new and purified temple, out of which flows a life-giving river.

Judgment Upon Sinful Judah (1:1-24:27)

Ezekiel's Call (1:1-3:27). Ezekiel's Vision of God's Glory (1:1-28). In 593 b.c. the Lord revealed His glory to Ezekiel through an elaborate vision. Ezekiel saw a storm cloud coming from the north. In the midst of the storm four flaming, winged creatures appeared. Each combined human and animal characteristics (much like some of the minor deities depicted in ancient Near Eastern art). Accompanying each creature in all of its movements was a large wheel, the rim of which was filled with eyes. A sparkling platform stood above the creatures' outstretched wings, which made a deafening sound as they moved. Above the platform was a throne made of precious stone. A human figure, glowing like fire and surrounded by radiant splendor, sat on the throne. Realizing that he was seeing a representation of God's glory, Ezekiel fell with his face to the ground.

Ezekiel's Commission (2:1-3:27). The Lord lifted Ezekiel up and commissioned him as a messenger to rebellious Israel. He encouraged the prophet not to fear, even in the face of intense hostility and danger. Ezekiel was to proclaim the Lord's word, no matter what the response. To symbolize his commission, the Lord instructed Ezekiel to eat a scroll containing words of lamentation and judgment. He promised to give Ezekiel the determination, perseverance, and boldness he would need to stand up to his obstinate audience.

After this encounter with the Lord, the divine Spirit led Ezekiel to the exilic community at Tel Abib in Babylon, where he sat in stunned silence for a week. The Lord then called him to serve as a watchman who would be responsible for warning his audience of God's impending judgment. Ezekiel was to warn both the wicked and the righteous who were tempted to backslide. If he failed to do so, their blood would be on his head.

No sooner was the commission delivered than heavy restrictions were placed upon it. Ezekiel would not be free to deliver messages of warning wherever and whenever he desired. The Lord instructed him to enter his house, where he would remain confined and incapable of speech. He could only leave his house or speak when specifically directed by the Lord to do so. These restrictions would be an object lesson to God's people that their rebellion was making it increasingly difficult for Him to communicate to them.

Object Lessons (4:1-5:17). Ezekiel Acts Out the Siege of Jerusalem (4:1-17). The Lord instructed Ezekiel to draw a picture of Jerusalem on a clay tablet (or perhaps a brick) and to stage a miniature siege of the city, complete with siege ramps, enemy camps, and battering rams. The prophet was also to place an iron pan between himself and the city. This action perhaps illustrated the unbreakable nature of the siege or represented the barrier between God and His sinful people.

The Lord also instructed the prophet to symbolically bear the sin (or perhaps punishment) of Israel. He was to lie on his left side for 390 days, corresponding to the years of the Northern Kingdom's sin (or punishment?). He was then to lie on his right side for forty days, corresponding to the years of Judah's sin (or punishment?). (Ezekiel 4:9-17, which describes the prophet conducting various activities, indicates that he did occasion-ally rise from his symbolic posture.) Whether periods of past sin or future punishment were being symbolized is uncertain. The significance of the figures 390 and forty is also unclear.

At the Lord's command Ezekiel made bread from various grains and stored it in a jar. During the 390-day period (see 4:5) he was to eat a daily portion of eight ounces of bread, supplemented by two-thirds of a quart of water. This restricted diet would symbolize the food rationing that would be necessary during the coming siege of Jerusalem. The Lord also told Ezekiel to cook his bread over a fire fueled by human excrement. Though the Old Testament law does not specifically prohibit this, Deuteronomy 23:12-14 suggests it would be regarded as unclean. Ezekiel's action would foreshadow the plight of the exiles, who would be forced to eat food in an unclean foreign land. When Ezekiel objected that he had always kept himself ceremonially pure, the Lord allowed him to use cow manure as fuel.

Ezekiel's Hair (5:1-17). The Lord also told Ezekiel to shave all of the hair off his head and face and to divide the hair into three equal parts. He was to burn one third, cut up another third with a sword, and throw the remaining third into the wind. These actions were to symbolize the coming destruction and exile of Jerusalem's residents. At the same time Ezekiel was to preserve a few strands of hair in the folds of his garment, symbolizing the remnant that would survive the judgment. However, to show the severity and extent of God's judgment, he was to throw some of these strands into the fire.

Jerusalem's sin would be the cause of its downfall. Despite their privileged status, God's people rebelled against the Lord's commandments and polluted the temple with idols. God's judgment would be so severe that the starved people would resort to eating their own family members. Two-thirds of the city's population would perish by famine and the sword, while the other third would go into exile. The surrounding nations would hold Jerusalem up as an object of ridicule.

Impending Judgment (6:1-7:27). Judgment on the High Places (6:1-14). Throughout the land the people had erected altars to worship pagan gods. The Lord was about to destroy these altars and litter the pagan shrines with the carcasses and bones of those who worshiped there. From north to south the land would be devastated. (The "desert" refers to the southern wilderness. "Diblah" should probably be read as Riblah, a city in Syria.) However, the Lord would preserve a remnant and scatter them among the nations. These survivors would someday acknowledge the Lord's sovereignty and confess their sin of idolatry.

The Day of the Lord (7:1-27). Judah's day of judgment had arrived. There would be no delay, for the nation's arrogance and violent, bloody deeds demanded punishment. The Lord would repay His people for their sins and show them no mercy. His judgment would be thorough and inescapable. Plague and famine would kill those inside Jerusalem, while enemy swords would slay those in the surrounding country. The few survivors would flee to the mountains in terror and mourn their fate. They would discard their silver and gold, realizing that it could not save them. The enemy would plunder their wealth and desecrate the temple. Not even the nation's religious and civil leaders, including the king himself, would be able to ward off this day of judgment.

The Polluted Temple (8:1-11:25). Idolatry in the Temple (8:1-18). While sitting in his house with some of the exiled elders of Judah, Ezekiel had a startling experience. Transported in a vision to the temple in Jerusalem, Ezekiel saw an idol at the north gate of the inner court. Also present was the glory of the Lord, which he had witnessed two times before (see 1:28; 3:23). Entering the court through a hole in the wall, Ezekiel saw seventy elders of the land offering incense to the images of unclean animals drawn on the walls. Each of these elders also worshiped his own private idol in secret, thinking that his actions were hidden from the Lord. Going back out to the north gate, Ezekiel saw women weeping for Tammuz, a Mesopotamian fertility god who had supposedly been confined to the underworld. Returning to the inner court, he observed twenty-five men worshiping the sun at the temple's very entrance. Such blatant disregard for the Lord demanded punishment.

God's Glory Leaves (9:1-11:25). Chapters 9-11 describe the gradual departure of God's glory from the polluted temple. The Lord summoned six executioners and a scribe. The Lord instructed the scribe to place a mark on the forehead of every faithful person in the city. He then commissioned the executioners to mercilessly slaughter everyone who was not so marked, beginning in the temple precincts. When Ezekiel expressed his concern that the whole nation would be wiped out, the Lord reminded him that judgment was well-deserved. The land was filled with bloodshed and injustice, and the people had lost faith in the Lord.

When the scribe returned from his task of marking the righteous, the Lord told him to gather coals from among the wheels of His flaming chariot and to scatter them over the city in an act of purifying judgment. Once more the vehicle bearing the Lord's throne is described in detail (see 10:9-14 with 1:4-21), with the living creatures of chapter 1 now being specifically called cherubim. As in the earlier vision, a wheel followed each cherub in its movements. The glory of the Lord, which had earlier left the throne above the cherubim and moved to the temple threshold, now mounted the cherubim chariot once more. The cherubim rose up and stopped over the east gate of the temple.

In the gate below were twenty-five men, including Jaazaniah and Pelatiah, two leaders of the people who were giving the city's residents bad advice and assuring them that they would experience no harm (11:1-2). They compared themselves to meat within a pot, which remains untouched by the flames of the fire below. The Lord told Ezekiel to prophesy against them. He would bring the sword against them and drive them out of the city into exile.

As Ezekiel proclaimed the message, Pelatiah died. Again Ezekiel expressed concern that the remnant of the people would be destroyed (compare 11:13 with 9:8). The Lord assured His prophet that He had not totally abandoned His people. He was preserving a remnant among the exiles and would one day bring them back to the land. This restored community would reject the idol-gods and worship the Lord with true devotion.

Following this word of assurance, the chariot carrying the glory of the Lord rose up from the city and stopped on the Mount of Olives, east of the city. The Lord had abandoned His chosen dwelling place, leaving it unprotected and vulnerable to invasion. At this point Ezekiel's vision ended, and he reported it to his fellow exiles.

Object Lessons (12:1-28). Ezekiel Packs His Bags (12:1-16). The Lord instructed Ezekiel to pack his belongings and then, in the sight of his fellow exiles, dig a hole through the wall of his house at evening and pretend he was sneaking away. He was to carry his belongings on his shoulder and cover his face. In so doing he would be acting out the fate of Judah's king, Zedekiah. A few years later, when the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem became inevitable, Zedekiah would pack his belongings and flee at night from the city. The Babylonians would capture him, put his eyes out, and then take him into exile.

Ezekiel Trembles as He Eats (12:17-20). The Lord next instructed Ezekiel to shake violently as he ate and drank. In so doing he was acting out the fate of Judah's and Jerusalem's inhabitants. When the Babylonians swept through the land, anxiety and despair would overtake them to such a degree that they would not even be able to enjoy a meal.

Faulty Perceptions of Prophecy Corrected (12:21-28). The Israelites had a saying, "The days go by and every vision comes to nothing" (12:22). The proverb seems to reflect their skepticism concerning the messages of the Lord's prophets. The Lord announced that the saying should be changed to "The days are near when every vision will be fulfilled," for He was about to fulfill His decrees.

Some also erroneously assumed that the prophetic message of Ezekiel pertained to the distant future and was irrelevant to them. The Lord announced that his prophecies would be fulfilled immediately.

False Prophecy (13:1-23). There were many false prophets in Israel who claimed to be spokesmen of the Lord and assured the people that all would be well. They were like those who whitewash a flimsy wall to hide its defects. The Lord would purge these deceivers from the covenant community. His judgment would come like a torrential downpour, violent wind, and destructive hailstones and batter the whitewashed wall to the ground.

The Lord also denounced the false prophetesses who misled the people with lying messages gained by divination. (Some interpret the barley and bread of 13:19 as their pay, but the items mentioned were more likely used as part of their rituals.) Their activities had a debilitating effect upon the righteous, and these diviners actually encouraged the wicked to continue in their evil ways. The Lord would expose them as frauds and free His people from their negative influence.

Idolatrous Leaders (14:1-11). The Lord denounced several of the elders living in exile because of their hypocrisy. Though they sought a divine oracle from Ezekiel, they harbored an idolatrous spirit within their hearts. The Lord would answer such individuals directly by cutting them off from the covenant community. Any prophet who dared to give an oracle to such hypocrites would be severely punished.

Jerusalem's Doom (14:12-23). The presence of a righteous remnant within Jerusalem would not prevent the city's destruction. Individuals might be delivered, but the city's doom was certain. To emphasize this point, the Lord stated that even if Noah, Daniel, and Job, three individuals famed for their righteousness, were residents of the city, it would not be spared. These men would escape, but they could save no others, not even their children. (The appearance of Daniel in this threesome is problematic. The Hebrew form of the name is spelled differently here than in the Book of Daniel. Furthermore, Daniel was a contemporary of Ezekiel's, while Noah and Job were figures from antiquity. Some have suggested that Danel, a just ruler who appears in a Canaanite tale dating to the second millennium b.c., is in view here. In this case all three examples would be non-Israelites who lived long before Ezekiel's time. However, others object to this identification, arguing that the Old Testament does not mention this legendary figure anywhere else and that the Lord would not use a worshiper of Canaanite gods as a model of righteousness.)

Men and animals would be destroyed by the Lord's judgment, which would come in the form of the sword, famine, wild beasts, and a plague. In addition to preserving any righteous individuals left in the city, the Lord would also allow a few of the wicked to survive and join the exiles in Babylon. When Ezekiel witnessed the degree of their sin, he would then know from firsthand experience that the Lord's judgment of the city had been necessary and perfectly just.

Sin and Judgment (15:1-17:24). Jerusalem the Useless Vine (15:1-8). The Lord drew a lesson from the wild vine, which is useless for construction purposes. It is typically used for fuel. Once burned, its charred condition makes it even more worthless. One might as well leave it in the fire until it is entirely consumed. Jerusalem was comparable to such a vine. The Lord had already subjected it to His fiery judgment. Like the charred vine it would now be totally consumed.

Jerusalem the Unfaithful Wife (16:1-63). The Lord used an allegory to illustrate the ingratitude and unfaithfulness of Jerusalem's citizens. Originally Jerusalem was a Canaanite city, populated by Amorites and Hittites. It was like an unwanted baby, thrown into a field and left to die from exposure. However, the Lord preserved the child's life. Later, after she had grown into a mature, beautiful young lady, the Lord entered into a marriage covenant with her. He clothed her with beautiful garments, provided her with food, and made her a queen. Her fame spread throughout the nations. Intoxicated by her riches and status, Jerusalem turned to other gods and nations. She built pagan sanctuaries, sacrificed her children to idols, and formed alliances with the surrounding nations. She became worse than a prostitute. Rather than receiving payment from her lovers, she paid them.

The Lord would punish her severely for her ingratitude and unfaithfulness. He would publicly expose her and then execute her. The very nations with which it had formed alliances would turn on it and destroy it.

Developing the allegory further, the Lord pointed out that Jerusalem was no different than her mother and her sisters, who were unfaithful to their husbands and children. Like the Canaanites who resided in the city in its early days, Jerusalem's residents sacrificed their sons and daughters to pagan gods. Like the people of Samaria and Sodom, viewed here as Jerusalem's sisters, they neglected justice and did abominable things in God's sight. Jerusalem's sins even exceeded those of Samaria and Sodom.

Though it would be humiliated for its sins, the Lord would someday restore the city. The Lord would renew His covenant with it and make atonement for its sins.

A Parable of Two Eagles (17:1-24). The Lord used another parable to illustrate truths concerning Jerusalem. A powerful eagle came to Lebanon, broke off the top branch of a cedar, transported it to a city of merchants, and planted it there. This eagle also took some seeds from the land of Israel and planted them in fertile soil, where they grew into a vine with leafy branches. However, when another mighty eagle approached, the vine's roots and branches grew toward him. The Lord then announced that the vine would be destroyed by the east wind. According to the interpretation of the parable (see 17:11-18), the first eagle represents Nebuchadnezzar, who carried away to Babylon Jerusalem's king and several nobles. Reference is made to the deportation of Jehoiachin and others in 597 b.c. (see 2 Kgs. 24:8-16). The planting of the vine represents the preservation of a remnant in Judah, headed up by Zedekiah, whom Nebuchadnezzar appointed as his vassal king. The second eagle symbolizes Egypt, to whom Judah looked for assistance when it decided to rebel against the Babylonians. The destruction of the vine points to the demise of Judah, which the Babylonians would severely punish for their rebellion.

However, the future was not entirely bleak. The Lord would break a branch from the top of a cedar and plant it on a high mountain, where it would grow into a large and fruitful tree. Since the cedar branch earlier symbolized the exiled king (compare 17:3-4 with 17:12), the branch mentioned here probably refers to a future king whom the Lord would establish in Jerusalem (represented by the mountain).

Individual Accountability (18:1-32). God's people were quoting a proverb that suggested they were suffering unjustly for the sins of earlier generations. The Lord corrected their faulty thinking. He always preserves the righteous and opposes the wicked, regardless of the moral status of their fathers.

To illustrate His point the Lord described a hypothetical righteous man who repudiates idolatry, adultery, and injustice. Such a man can be assured of divine protection. However, if this man has an idolatrous, adulterous, unjust son, this evil child will be destroyed despite his father's righteousness. Again if this wicked man has a son who is righteous, that son will not be held accountable for his father's evil deeds. Instead, like his grandfather, his life will be preserved by the Lord. Each man is judged on the basis of his own deeds, not those of his father.

The lesson for Israel was obvious. If they were experiencing divine judgment, it had to mean that they, like their fathers, were evil. Rather than complaining that God is unjust, they had to repent and turn from their wicked ways, for God desired that they live, not die.

Israel's Princes (19:1-14). The prophet offered a lament for Israel's princes which, like the previous messages, contains several parabolic elements. The princes' mother (probably the nation Judah or the city of Jerusalem; see 19:10-14) is compared to a lioness who rears several cubs. One of the cubs grew into a mighty lion who tore people to bits, but he was eventually captured and taken to Egypt. Reference is made to unjust Jehoahaz, whom the Egyptians took captive in 609 b.c. (see 2 Kgs. 23:31-34). Another of the cubs grew strong and brought terror to the land; but he was trapped, put in a cage, and taken to Babylon. Reference is made here to either Jehoiachin or Zedekiah, both of whom were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs. 24:8-25:7).

Switching the imagery, the Lord compared the princes' mother to a fruitful vine which He destroys in His anger and replants in a desert. The nation's (or city's) downfall and exile is in view.

Past/Present Rebellion (20:1-44). When some of the elders in exile came to inquire of the Lord, He refused to answer them. Instead He told Ezekiel to review the nation's rebellious history. From the very beginning, when the Lord confronted His people in Egypt, they resisted His will by clinging to their idols. After He had delivered them from bondage and given them the law, they rebelled in the wilderness. Though the Lord prohibited that generation from entering the promised land, He preserved their children and warned them not to follow in their fathers' footsteps. However, the children, while still in the wilderness, sinned against the Lord. When He finally established them in the land, they worshiped Canaanite gods at pagan sanctuaries. Ezekiel's idolatrous contemporaries were no different. Consequently the Lord would purify them through judgment and exile. Once He had removed the rebellious worshipers of idols, He would restore the nation to the land. The people then would repudiate their former behavior and worship the Lord in purity.

Fire and Sword (20:45-21:32). Judgment would sweep through Judah like a raging forest fire. In bringing the Babylonians toward the land, the Lord would draw His sharp and polished sword. Flashing like lightning, this sword would bring destruction throughout the land. On his way to Palestine Nebuchadnezzar would reach a fork in the road, with one branch leading to Jerusalem and the other to Rabbah, a prominent Ammonite city. To determine his course of action, he would use various methods of divination, including drawing marked arrows from a quiver, consulting his idols, and examining livers. The Lord would cause all indicators to point toward Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar would besiege and conquer the city and take its people into exile. Meanwhile the Ammonites, though arrogant and hostile, were not to think that they would be spared. The Lord's sword of judgment would fall upon them as well (see 25:1-7).

City of Bloodshed (22:1-31). The corruption within Jerusalem made its judgment inevitable. Several specific sins are mentioned here, including idolatry, misuse of power, lack of respect for parents, neglect of widows and orphans, desecration of the Sabbath, incest, bribery, and usury. Violence filled the city. Throughout the chapter reference is made to the shed blood of the innocent. The princes and civil officials took the lead in this regard by oppressing the poor and helpless. Even the religious leaders were corrupt. The priests failed to instruct the people in the law and made no distinction between the holy and profane. The false prophets proclaimed lies in the name of the Lord. When the Lord looked for a man to stand "in the gap" and intercede for the nation, no one was found. Consequently He would purify the city by judgment and scatter the people among the nations.

Two Sisters (23:1-49). To illustrate the nation's unfaithfulness, the Lord used an allegory in which He compared Samaria and Jerusalem to two promiscuous sisters named Oholah and Oholibah. (Oholah means her tent and Oholibah my tent is in her. Perhaps the latter name reflects the fact that God dwelt in the Jerusalem temple.) The sisters had been prostitutes from their youth in Egypt. Though belonging to the Lord (whether as wives or children is not clear), they courted the favor of foreign nations.

Oholah (Samaria) sought alliances with the Assyrians. She is portrayed as lusting after the Assyrian soldiers and prostituting herself among their officers. Ironically, her lovers killed her and carried away her children.

Oholibah (Jerusalem) witnessed the fate of her sister but failed to learn from her example. She also lusted after the Assyrians and later turned her attention toward the Babylonians and others. Vivid language and harsh imagery are employed to depict her nymphomania. The Lord warned that her lovers would turn on her. The Babylonians would come against the land with all their military might and cruelly destroy her population. Oholibah would be publicly humiliated and suffer the fate of her sister Oholah.

The Cooking Pot (24:1-14). On the very day when the Babylonians began their siege of Jerusalem (January 15, 588 b.c.), the Lord gave Ezekiel a parable illustrating the city's downfall. Jerusalem was like a cooking pot, which had been encrusted with deposits (its bloodshed and idolatry). The inhabitants of Jerusalem were like meat and bones cooking inside the pot. The fire burning beneath the pot (the Babylonian siege) would thoroughly cook the meat and char the bones, both of which would eventually be removed piece by piece (a picture of the exile). The empty pot would then be left on the fire until its impurities were burned away.

Death of Ezekiel's Wife (24:15-27). The Lord announced to Ezekiel that his beloved wife was about to die suddenly. However, as an object lesson to Israel, the Lord commanded the prophet not to mourn outwardly over her death, as was the custom. Instead he could only groan to himself. When his wife died shortly thereafter, Ezekiel obeyed the Lord's instructions. When the people observed his silence, they inquired about its significance. He explained that they were not to mourn publicly over the downfall of their beloved city and its temple, just as he refused to lament over his wife's death.

When Jerusalem finally fell, a fugitive would bring Ezekiel the news. At that time the Lord would remove Ezekiel's muteness (see 3:26-27; 33:21-22). He would now speak openly and freely with the survivors of the catastrophe, warning and encouraging them.

Judgment Upon Nations (25:1-32:32)

The nations surrounding Judah would not escape God's judgment. This section contains oracles against seven specific nations. Though all directions of the compass are represented, Tyre (to the north) and Egypt (to the south) receive special attention. The seven oracles against Egypt conclude the section. The wide geographical distribution of the nations mentioned, as well as the use of the symbolic number seven, convey a feeling of completeness.

Ammon (25:1-7). The Lord would judge the Ammonites because they rejoiced over Jerusalem's fall. "People of the East," either the Babylonians or marauding tribes from the desert, would plunder Ammon and reduce Rabbah, its most prominent city, to a pasture land.

Moab (25:8-11). The Lord would also punish the Moabites, Ammon's neighbors to the south, because they too rejoiced over Jerusalem's fall. The "people of the East" would conquer the fortified cities guarding Moab's northern border, opening the land up to invasion.

Edom (25:12-14). Judgment would also fall on Edom (already mentioned in 25:8; compare "Seir"), located south of Moab. When Judah fell, Edom displayed a vengeful spirit (compare Obad.). The Lord would take vengeance on Edom through His people Israel.

Philistia (25:15-17). The Lord would also take vengeance on the Philistines (also referred to here as Kerethites), Judah's neighbors to the west, because they had opposed God's people for centuries.

Tyre (26:1-28:19). The Downfall of Tyre (26:1-21). Tyre, located on the Mediterranean coast north of Israel, was a prominent commercial center. Despite its wealth and defenses, it would be unable to withstand the Lord's judgment. Many nations would rage against it, like the turbulent waters of the sea. In the immediate future Nebuchadnezzar's armies would besiege and conquer the city. Tyre would be reduced to a heap of rubble which that never again be rebuilt. All along the Mediterranean coast Tyre's trading partners would lament its demise.

Harmonizing this prophecy with history is difficult. Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre for thirteen long years (about 586-573 b.c.) and finally made it a vassal state. However, he did not destroy the city to the degree described by Ezekiel (even 29:18 acknowledges this). Many subsequent conquerors (including Alexander the Great in 332) took the city, but it continued to exist into the Christian era.

Several solutions have been offered, none of which is entirely satisfactory. One possibility is that the description of Tyre's downfall is somewhat stereotypical and purposely exaggerated to emphasize that it would be subjected to the Babylonians and experience a significant decline in prestige. Another possibility is that the description of 26:12-14 moves beyond the time of Nebuchadnezzar and encompasses later attacks on the city. Such subsequent attacks ultimately brought the final downfall of the city. Such a blurring of the immediate future with more distant events is typical of prophetic literature.

The Prophet's Lament over Tyre (27:1-36). To emphasize the certainty of Tyre's judgment, the Lord told Ezekiel to lament the city's doom in advance. Tyre is compared to a large commercial ship made from the best wood, adorned with beautiful sails, and manned by skilled sailors. Tyre bought and sold every conceivable product, including precious metals and stones, slaves, animals, fabric and clothing, food, and even ivory tusks. Its list of trading partners included virtually every nation and city in the known world. However, a storm (the Lord's judgment) would destroy this great ship. All of its sailors and merchants would sink into the sea, causing its trading partners looking on from the shore to lament over its fate.

The King of Tyre Denounced (28:1-19). Singling out the king of Tyre as representative of the city, the Lord announced that this proud ruler and his city would be humiliated. Because of the city's great success and wealth, its king fancied himself a god and took great pride in his wisdom. (Though some see the "Daniel" of 28:3 as the legendary Canaanite King Danel, the reference to his ability to disclose secrets suggests the biblical Daniel, a contemporary of Ezekiel, is in view. Compare comments on 14:14,20.) When the day of judgment arrived, the king would stand humiliated before his executioners, his delusions of grandeur replaced by the painful reality of his mortality.

In anticipation of the king's downfall Ezekiel pronounced a taunting lament against him. He compared the king to a wise, beautiful, and richly adorned cherub who once dwelt in the garden of Eden and enjoyed access to God's holy mountain. This cherub eventually lost his prestigious position because of his arrogance and oppressive economic practices (Tyre's commercial empire is alluded to here). The Lord threw him down from the sacred mountain and destroyed him with fire in the sight of the nations.

The background for the imagery of this lament is uncertain. The mountain of God has parallels in Canaanite mythology. Use of such mythological imagery might be expected in an address to a Phoenician king. (See Isa. 14:4-21, where mythological themes and imagery are used in a taunt directed to the king of Babylon.) Verse 13 appears to refer to the garden of Eden of biblical tradition, but the only cherubim mentioned in the Genesis account are those placed as guardians at the gate of the garden following the expulsion of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:24). Perhaps Ezekiel drew his imagery from an extrabiblical Eden tradition.

Because of the references to Eden and to the cherub's pride and fall, some have seen a veiled reference to Satan in 28:12-19. However, the allusion to Eden does not support this view. Satan is not specifically mentioned in Genesis 23, let alone portrayed as a cherub. Satan is traditionally associated with the serpent of the Eden account. But even if this interpretation is correct, the serpent is identified as one of the animals created by God (see Gen. 3:1,14), not as a cherub in disguise.

Sidon (28:20-26). Sidon, another prominent Phoenician city, would also experience divine judgment. Like Tyre it had treated God's people with hostility. The Lord would destroy the Sidonians with plague and sword.

The Lord would someday restore His people to their land, where they would live in peace, free from the threats of hostile neighbors like Sidon, Tyre, Philistia, Edom, Moab, and Ammon.

Egypt (29:1-32:32). The Lord's Opposition to Pharaoh (29:1-16). The Lord announced that He was also opposed to Pharaoh, the proud ruler of Egypt. Comparing the king to a crocodile in the Nile, the Lord warned that He would pull him from the river and drag him to the desert, where he would die and be eaten by scavengers. The Lord would turn the entire land (from Migdol in the north to Aswan in the south) into a ruin for forty years and scatter the Egyptians among the nations. Following the forty-year exile, the Lord would return them to their land, but Egypt would never again experience its former glory. God's people, who had once trusted in Egypt, would no longer rely on its help. When and how this prophecy was fulfilled is not certain. Historical records do not indicate that Egypt experienced desolation or exile to the degree described by Ezekiel.

Booty for Nebuchadnezzar (29:17-21). In 571 b.c., shortly after Nebuchadnezzar had lifted his long siege of Tyre, Ezekiel received another message pertaining to Egypt. Though Nebuchadnezzar had come away from Tyre with relatively little reward for his efforts, the Lord would give him Egypt, from which he would haul away an abundance of riches. This prophecy was probably fulfilled in 568 b.c., when, according to a Babylonian text, Nebuchadnezzar apparently conducted a campaign against Egypt.

The Day of the Lord on Egypt (30:1-19). Egypt's fall is associated with the Day of the Lord, an expression used elsewhere in the Old Testament of those times when the Lord comes as a warrior and swiftly and decisively destroys His enemies. Using Nebuchadnezzar as His "sword," the Lord would destroy both Egypt and its allies. Egypt's great river, the Nile, would dry up, its idols and princes would prove helpless, and all of its famous cities would be conquered.

Pharaoh's Power Broken (30:20-26). Ezekiel received a message concerning Pharaoh in 587 b.c., one year after Nebuchadnezzar had defeated Pharaoh Hophra in battle when the latter had tried to come and aid besieged Jerusalem (see Jer. 37:5-8). By allowing Nebuchadnezzar to defeat Hophra, the Lord had, as it were, broken Pharaoh's arm, a symbol of his military strength. However, the Lord was not finished with Egypt. He would energize the king of Babylon to conquer Egypt. Both of Pharaoh's arms would be broken. When the Egyptians were conquered and scattered among the nations, they would recognize the sovereignty of Israel's God.

A Fallen Cedar (31:1-18). The Lord challenged Pharaoh and his armies to learn a lesson from history. Assyria, the mightiest empire in the Near East from 745-626 b.c., had once been like a mighty cedar of Lebanon. It was well nourished and grew tall. Birds lodged in its branches, and animals sought shelter under its shade. Not even the trees of the garden of Eden could rival its majesty and beauty. However, because of its pride, God delivered it over to a ruthless nation (the Babylonians) who chopped it down. No other trees would ever grow so tall. Pharaoh also was like a great tree, but, like Assyria, he and his armies would come crashing to the earth.

Lamenting Pharaoh's Destruction (32:1-16). The Lord revealed to Ezekiel a taunting lament the nations would someday sing over fallen Pharaoh. Though he was like a mighty lion or a powerful crocodile, he would be captured, destroyed, and eaten by scavengers. Darkness would settle over his land as a sign of judgment and destruction. Babylon would invade Egypt, destroy its people, and steal its wealth.

Egypt's Armies Slaughtered (32:17-32). Pharaoh's armies would be slaughtered and descend into the land of the dead. They would join the armies of other nations who spread terror on the earth but eventually met their demise. These nations included Assyria, Elam (located east of Mesopotamia), Meshech and Tubal (northern nations; see 38:2), Edom, and Sidon.

Restoration of Israel (33:1-48:35)

Ezekiel's Commission (33:1-20). Shortly before the fall of Jerusalem, the Lord renewed Ezekiel's commission as the nation's spiritual watchman (see 3:16-21). One of a watchman's primary responsibilities was to warn his people of approaching danger. As long as the watchman carried out his duty, he was not responsible for those who failed to take his warning seriously and were unprepared when disaster arrived. Ezekiel was in a similar position. He was to warn both the wicked and backsliders of impending doom and call them to repentance. Even though the nation was weighed down with sin, it was God's desire that they turn from their evil ways and live.

A True Prophet (33:21-33). In January of 585 b.c., five months after the temple had been destroyed, a fugitive delivered the news to Ezekiel. The evening before, the Lord had opened Ezekiel's mouth, ending his long period of enforced silence (see 3:26; 24:26-27). Now that Ezekiel's prophecies of judgment had been fulfilled, his ministry would be primarily one of encouragement, and his messages would focus on the future restoration of the exiles.

However, he was to deliver one more judgment speech. The survivors who remained in Judah following the destruction of Jerusalem retained delusions of grandeur, thinking that the land was now theirs. Ezekiel corrected their faulty thinking, pointing out that their idolatry and hypocrisy precluded them from enjoying the land. Another wave of judgment would sweep them away. In the past they had not taken Ezekiel's messages seriously, but in the day of judgment they would finally realize that he was a true prophet of the Lord.

New Covenant (34:1-31). Israel's leaders, compared to shepherds, had not cared properly for God's flock. These leaders, who were consumed by self-interest, had actually oppressed and exploited the people. The sheep were now scattered and being ravaged by wild beasts (foreign nations such as Babylon). The Lord announced that these incompetent leaders would be eliminated and that He would take over the care of the flock. The Lord would gather His wandering and injured sheep back to Israel, where they would graze peacefully in rich pasturelands. He would reestablish justice among His people and raise up for them a new, ideal Davidic ruler. He would make with them "a covenant of peace," which would assure them of safety from danger and of agricultural prosperity.

Edom (35:1-15). God would judge those nations that had traditionally sought the destruction of His people. As a prime example of such a nation, Edom was singled out as an object of God's wrath. The Edomites participated in Jerusalem's downfall, with hopes that they might eventually acquire the land of Israel as their own. They arrogantly taunted God's people in their time of calamity. Edom would taste God's vengeance. He would treat them the same way they had treated His people. The Edomites would be slaughtered by the sword and their land left a desolate heap of ruins.

Prosperity Returns (36:1-15). Foreign armies had overrun the mountains of Israel and boasted of their conquests. The Lord swore that He would bring vengeance upon these nations (Edom is again singled out). He would also restore His people to the land. Once again crops would grow in the land, and cities would be populated.

Restoration (36:16-38). Israel had polluted the land with their sinful deeds and had brought dishonor to God's name. When Israel went into exile, the nations made wrong assumptions about the character of God. To vindicate Himself and restore His reputation among the nations, the Lord would restore the exiles to the land. He would cleanse their sins, create in them a desire for loyalty, and renew His agricultural blessings. At that time both the nations and Israel would recognize His sovereignty.

Resurrection (37:1-14). Ezekiel's vision of the dry bones portrayed in a vivid way Israel's miraculous restoration. In this vision the prophet saw a valley full of dry, disconnected bones, representing the scattered people of Israel. However, suddenly the bones began to come together, and tendons and flesh appeared on them. The breath of life then entered into the corpses, and a multitude of living beings stood in the valley. In the same way the Lord would miraculously revive the nation of Israel. He would deliver them from the grave of exile, place His Spirit among them, and settle them once more in the promised land.

Reunited (37:15-28). The day of restoration would also be a day of reunification for Israel and Judah. To illustrate this the Lord told Ezekiel to take two sticks, one representing the Northern Kingdom and the other the Southern Kingdom, and hold them as one in his hand. In the same way the Lord would bring the exiles of both Israel and Judah back to the land and make them one kingdom again. He would raise up a new ideal Davidic ruler to lead them, establish a new covenant with them, and once more dwell in their midst.

Israel Invaded (38:1-39:29). These chapters describe an invasion of Israel by distant nations, led by "Gog, of the land of Magog, the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal." Attempts to identify Gog with a historical figure are unconvincing. Magog, Tubal, and Meshech are mentioned in Genesis 10:2 and 1 Chronicles 1:5 as sons of Japheth. In Ezekiel's day their descendants inhabited what is now eastern Turkey. According to 38:5-6 the allies of Gog included Persia, Cush (modern Ethiopia), Put (modern Libya), Gomer (another son of Japheth whose descendants resided to the far north of Israel), and Beth Togarmah (according to Gen. 10:3, Togarmah was a son of Gomer).

Ezekiel envisioned a time when the armies of these nations would attack unsuspecting Israel. The Lord would intervene in power and miraculously deliver His people. A mighty earthquake would shake the land, and the enemy armies would turn in panic on each other. The Lord would rain down hail and sulfur upon them. The slaughter would be comparable to a great sacrifice. Birds and wild animals would devour the flesh and blood of the enemy warriors. Even with this assistance from the animal kingdom, it would take the people of Israel seven months to dispose of all the corpses. The enemy's weapons would provide God's people with a supply of fuel that would last seven years.

Since this prophecy does not correspond to any known historical event, it is best to understand it as still awaiting fulfillment. Gog and his hordes are symbolic of the end time opposition to God's kingdom which will be violently crushed (see Rev. 20:8-9).

Pure Worship Restored (40:1-48:35). In this section the Lord gave Ezekiel a vision of restored Israel. He saw a detailed picture of the new temple and received lengthy instructions for the future leaders of the nations. The book concludes with a detailed description of the future geographical divisions of the land.

Scholars differ in their interpretation of this section. Some see its language as symbolic and as being fulfilled in the New Testament church, while others interpret the prophecy as applying to a literal Israel of the future. Some understand these chapters as giving a literal description of conditions in the millennial age. Others understand the vision as an idealized, perhaps exaggerated, portrayal of God's future restoration of His people that is filled with symbolic elements.

A New Temple (40:1-43:12). Through the medium of a vision the Lord gave Ezekiel a preview of the new temple. Beginning at the east gate of the outer court, he was given a tour that led into the inner court, its inner rooms, the temple portico, the outer sanctuary, and finally the most holy place. All along the way detailed measurements and descriptions are provided.

Most importantly, God would reside in the new temple. Almost twenty years earlier Ezekiel had a vision of God's glory leaving the Jerusalem temple (see chaps. 8-10). That temple was subsequently destroyed by the Babylonians. Now through another vision the prophet witnessed God's glory returning to the city and taking up residence in the new temple (see 43:1-9).

Regulations for the New Temple (43:13-46:24). These chapters contain several instructions and regulations for the priests and rulers who would function in the restored covenant community of the future.

The section begins with instructions for building the temple altar and for its dedicatory sacrifices. Once the appropriate sin offerings were made for seven consecutive days, the altar would be regarded as purified and would be ready for use. From the eighth day on the altar could be used for burnt and fellowship offerings, which expressed the worshiper's devotion to and communion with God.

Because the Lord's glory returned to the temple complex through the east gate of the outer court, this gate would remain shut. Only "the prince" could sit inside this gateway, where he would eat in the presence of the Lord. This prince is identified elsewhere as the ideal Davidic ruler, or Messiah, whom the Lord would raise up to lead His people (34:24; 37:24-25).

In the past rebellious Israelites had violated the Lord's covenant by allowing foreigners to bring their detestable practices into the temple. These foreigners were "uncircumcised in heart and flesh," meaning that they lacked devotion to the Lord as well as the physical sign of being part of the covenant community. Such foreigners were prohibited from entering the new temple.

Because the Levites had been unfaithful to the Lord, they would be demoted. They could tend the temple gates, slaughter sacrificial animals, and assist the people, but they were not allowed to handle the holy objects or offerings of the Lord.

As a reward for their faithfulness the Zadokite line of the Levitical family would function as the Lord's priests. Zadok was a descendant of Aaron through Eleazar and Phinehas (see 1 Chr. 6:3-8,50-53).

In the future allotment of the land a portion must be reserved for the Lord (and His priestly servants) directly in the center of the land. The prince (Davidic ruler) would possess the land bordering the Lord's portion on the east and west.

This mention of the future prince leads to an exhortation to the civil leaders of God's people in Ezekiel's day. They were not to oppress the people but were to promote justice and fairness in the socioeconomic sphere.

The Lord also provided detailed regulations pertaining to offerings and feasts, including the New Year festival, Passover, and Tabernacles. Various regulations pertaining to the prince highlight chapter 46. On Sabbath days and New Moons the prince would lead the people in worshiping the Lord by presenting offerings at the threshold of the east gate of the inner court.

The River Flowing from the Temple (47:1-12). Ezekiel envisioned a river flowing from the temple toward the east. The river became increasingly deeper as it flowed through the desert on its way to the Dead Sea. Its fresh water was filled with fish, and fishermen lined its shores with nets. Also lining the river's banks were nourishing fruit trees, the leaves of which possessed healing properties. This life-giving river flowing from God's throne symbolized the restoration of divine blessing which the land would experience.

Boundaries and Land Allotments (47:13-48:35). The Book of Ezekiel concludes with a detailed description of the land's future boundaries and allotted portions. The holy city, constructed as a perfect square in the middle of the land, would have twelve gates (three on each of its four walls) named after the tribes of Israel. The city would be named "Yahweh-Shammah," meaning the Lord is there.

Theological and Ethical Significance. Ezekiel was the priestly prophet of judgment and hope. His message to the exiles in Babylon still speaks to hurting, broken people in need of a God-given second chance. Jerusalem's destruction and its people's deportation to Babylon caused some to question God's ability to save and His commitment to His covenants. Ezekiel interpreted these events in light of God's character.

Ezekiel's strange, opening vision pictures God as without equal, perfect in holiness and power. Such a God would not abide with unrepentant people. Jerusalem fell not because God was unable to save it but because God abandoned His people to their chosen fate.

But judgment was only part of Ezekiel's picture of God. Even in exile, far from home, God was accessible to the prophet. God's faithfulness was Ezekiel's hope. God is the caring Shepherd of His people (Ezek. 34). God is the only hope for new life for the dead bones of the nation Israel (Ezek. 37).

Christians can learn responsibility from Ezekiel. Like Ezekiel, believers are to empathize with the hurt of those around them (3:15). Like Ezekiel, Christians are "watchmen," responsible for warning neighbors of sin's consequences (3:16-21). Ezekiel 34 warns believers not to seek their own interests at others' expense. Rather, Christians are to model God's love and care in their actions. Believers are to share the good news that God is still the Giver of new life and second chances to those who turn to Him in repentance and faith.

Questions for Reflection

1. In what ways is Ezekiel an example of an obedient, loyal servant of the Lord?
2. How does Ezekiel portray God? What roles and characteristics does Ezekiel attribute to God?
3. Why were Ezekiel's contemporaries displeasing to the Lord? Is the modern church like them in any ways?
4. What do Ezekiel's messages of salvation teach us about God's relationship to His people?

Sources for Additional Study

Alexander, Ralph H. "Ezekiel." The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Vol. 6. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986.

Block, Daniel. Ezekiel. 2 Vols. New International Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

Cooper. Lamar. Ezekiel. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994.

Greenberg, Moshe. Ezekiel 1-20. Anchor Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1983.

Taylor, John B. Ezekiel. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1969.