Hebrews
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Hebrews
The Book of Hebrews is anonymous in that the name of the author is not mentioned in the book. The original readers knew who the writer was, but he remains unknown to us. Despite the difficulties in determining the author of Hebrews, its majestic picture of Christ commended its contents to the early church.
The writer of Hebrews presented Christ as superior to the Old Testament prophets, angels, Moses, Joshua, and Aaron. He laced magnificent discussions of Christ's person and work into frightening passages warning against apostasy (1:1-2:4). The superiority of Christ led the writer to appeal for faith (chap. 11), stamina (12:3-11), and good works (13:16).
ARTICLE: New Testament Use of the Old Testament
A study of the New Testament's use of the Old Testament must include not only an assessment of Old Testament quotations as they are found in the New Testament. It also must include matters of a broader scope, such as the relationship of the two Testaments, the nature and meaning of prophecy and fulfillment, methods of interpreting the Old Testament used by New Testament writers, and their development of biblical themes. These aspects of such an important study can only be touched upon in a survey article of this nature.
The relationship of the two Testaments is foundational to our understanding of the New Testament's use of the Old Testament. Without question, the New Testament authors attributed full authority to the Old Testament Scriptures. The New Testament is never viewed as being in conflict with the Old Testament but rather as the fulfillment of what God had begun to reveal in the Old Testament (see Heb. 1:1-2). The New Testament writers viewed the Old Testament as invested with divine authority, and in their use of it by way of quotations they treated it as the very Word of God. We are surprised to discover that 250 quotations of the Old Testament are in the New Testament. In addition, there are a number of allusions to the Old Testament that are not specific quotations but where it is obvious that an author was employing Old Testament phraseology. Eliminating all allusions that are not of a direct nature, there are at least 278 different Old Testament verses cited in the New Testament: ninety-four from the Pentateuch, ninety-nine from the Prophets, and eighty-five from the Writings.
Something of the authority with which the New Testament authors quoted the Old Testament can be seen in their use of citation formulas. Sometimes the New Testament authors used citation formulas such as "it is written" or "Scripture says." The former emphasizes the permanent nature as well as the binding character of that which has been written. Jesus withstood the temptation of Satan in the wilderness by three times introducing Old Testament quotations with the phrase "it is written." The latter emphasizes the fact that Scripture "speaks" (present tense) to us today. The desire of the author of Hebrews to emphasize the continuity of the old and new covenants is seen in the fact that eighteen of our twenty-five Old Testament citation formulas appear in the present tense.
Many times God is referred to as the Author of Scripture, emphasizing its divine origin. The joint nature of the origin of Scripture is attested in the use of the names of the human authors as well as the divine Author. For example, Matthew 1:22 reads, "What the Lord had spoken through the prophet." In Acts 1:16 we read, "The Holy Spirit spoke long ago through the mouth of David."
In the Gospels there are approximately thirty-nine Old Testament quotations attributed to Jesus. Many times Jesus' use of the Old Testament reflects a literalist interpretation. At other times He used the Old Testament in a "this is that" or fulfillment type of interpretation. For example, in Luke 4:16-21 the fulfillment theme is prominent in our Lord's use of the Old Testament. Jesus treated the Old Testament as the very Word of God, giving it the highest authority when He said of it that "not the smallest letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the law until everything is accomplished" (Matt. 5:18).
In Acts there are twenty-seven Old Testament quotations attributed to various Christian leaders. Their use of the Old Testament reveals that they understood it from a Christocentric perspective. In the Pauline epistles there are no less than eighty-three quotations (excluding allusions).
As in Acts, Paul's understanding and use of the Old Testament was couched in a Christological setting as well. Oftentimes Paul's Old Testament quotations can be found in clusters as he would seek to bolster an argument with quotations from many parts of the Old Testament (see for example, Rom. 3:10-18 and 9:12-29).
The New Testament writers interpreted many of the events concerning Christ and the church as having been prophesied in the Old Testament. In addition, the New Testament writers, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, have taken many Old Testament passages and interpreted and applied them in a greater perspective beyond their original context. For example, Habakkuk 2:4, "The righteous will live by his faith," is quoted three times in the New Testament: Romans 1:17; Galatians 3:11; and Hebrews 10:38.
Sometimes a question arises when one compares the New Testament citation with the Old Testament original in that it would appear the New Testament writers used some freedom in their quotations both in respect to form and meaning. Several factors should be kept in mind. First, modern-day rules of precision in quotation did not apply to the biblical writers. Second, as a result, Old Testament quotations were oftentimes paraphrased by the New Testament writers. Third, quotations had to be translated from Hebrew to Greek. Fourth, New Testament writers often simply alluded to an Old Testament passage without intending to quote it verbatim. These and other reasons account for the fact that some quotations are not "exact."
In conclusion, the New Testament writers believed the Old Testament to be directly relevant to them, and they used it accordingly. Their statements indicate that the Old Testament in its entirety is meaningful and relevant for the first-century church as well as for us today.
Authorship. The early church historian Eusebius quoted the biblical scholar Origen as saying, "Who it was that really wrote the Epistle [Hebrews], God only knows" ( Eccelesiastical History 6.25). Despite this verdict many varied opinions about the authorship have arisen.
Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire regarded Paul as the author.
Hebrews contains statements similar to Paul's view of the preexistence and creatorship of Christ (compare Heb. 1:1-4 with Col. 1:15-17). Both Hebrews 8:6 and 2 Corinthians 3:4-11 discuss the new covenant. These factors inclined some observers to consider Paul as the author.
Christians in the Western Roman Empire originally questioned Pauline authorship of Hebrews. They observed that the statement of 2:3 suggested that the author was not an apostle. Also the
Old Testament quotations in Hebrews come from the Greek Septuagint, but Paul used both the Hebrew text and the Septuagint. Further, none of Paul's other writings are anonymous; and the polished Greek style of Hebrews does not resemble the explosive, dynamic style of most of Paul's writings. Shortly before a.d.. 400, Christian leaders in the West extended acceptance to the Book of Hebrews. They absorbed it into the Pauline collection of writings without distinguishing it from the rest.
Tertullian advocated Barnabas as the author of Hebrews. Barnabas's background as a Levite would qualify him to write the book, but support for his authorship is lacking in the early church. Martin Luther suggested Apollos as the author. In Apollos's favor is his reputation for eloquence (Acts 18:24), but against him is the absence of early church tradition accepting him as author. Some have suggested Luke as the author. His knowledge of Greek would favor him, but Luke was a Gentile. The outlook of Hebrews is definitely Jewish. The nineteenth-century church historian Adolph Harnack mentioned Priscilla, the wife of Aquila, as the author. She and her husband would have known Pauline theology and Jewish practice, but the early church was silent about nominating her as author.
Modern Greek texts of Hebrews bear the title "To the Hebrews." It is best to accept this title and recognize that we cannot know for sure who wrote Hebrews. Despite our ignorance of the author, we can use and understand what he wrote.
Date. The date of writing Hebrews is difficult to determine. We must date the book before a.d.. 95, when Clement referred to it. The writer used present tense verbs in 10:11 ("performs" and "offers") to describe the ministry of the priests in the Jerusalem temple. This indicates that sacrifices were still being offered in the days of the writer.
The Roman army destroyed the temple in a.d.. 70. Persecution intensified as that day drew near (see 10:32-34). Timothy was still alive (13:23). The best option for the date is the mid to late 60s before the Romans destroyed the temple.
Recipients. The above title for Hebrews reflects the conviction that Jewish Christians were the original readers of the writing. Frequent appeal to the Old Testament, extensive knowledge of Jewish ritual, and the warning not to return to Jewish ritual support this conviction.
One might feel that the Jewish Christians who read Hebrews lived in Palestine. According to 2:3, however, the readers may not have seen nor heard Jesus during His earthly ministry. The verse suggests that the readers had been dependent on the first hearers of the Christian message to share it with them. Doubtless, most Palestinian Christians had heard Jesus' preaching and teaching. According to 6:10 the readers of Hebrews had resources enough to assist other believers. Palestinian Christians were poor and needed aid (Acts 11:27-30; Rom. 15:26). These facts indicate that the readers were not from Palestine.
The statement in 13:24, "Those from Italy send you their greetings," sounds as if Italians away from their home were returning greetings to friends in Rome. If this is true, Rome is the probable destination of the writing. A second fact favoring this view is that a knowledge of Hebrews first appears in Clement's First Epistle, which was written in Rome.
Purpose. Wherever the recipients lived, they were well-known to the writer. He described them as generous (6:10) but immature (5:11-14). He was aware of their persecution (10:32-34; 12:4), and he planned to visit them soon (13:19,23).
The writer rebuked the readers for not meeting together often enough (10:24-25). They were in danger of lapsing into sin (3:12-14). Perhaps the readers were a Jewish-Christian group who had broken away from the chief body of Christians in the area. They were considering returning to Judaism to avoid persecution. The author wrote to warn them against such apostasy (6:4-9; 10:26-31) and to help them return to the main-stream of Christian fellowship.
Theme. The writer of Hebrews presented Jesus Christ as the High Priest who offered Himself as the perfect sacrifice for sins (8:1-2; 10:11-18). Christ had superiority over every aspect of Old Testament religion. Understanding this principle could prevent the readers from abandoning Christ and returning to Judaism (10:26-29).
Literary Form. The language of Hebrews is elegant and carefully constructed. Its excellent Greek does not clearly show up in English translations that strive for readability.
Was the writer penning a letter to a specific group of Christians, or was the letter a summary of a sermon made available to several Christian congregations? The reference to "I do not have time to tell" in 11:32 seems to indicate a sermon; however, the writer knew specific details about the congregation (5:11-12; 6:9-10; 10:32-34; 12:4; 13:7). This suggests a letter written to a specific location. The statement in 13:22 also requires that we view the writing as a letter penned in the style of an earnest warning to a specific congregation.
Theology. The letter to the Hebrews emphasizes the person of Christ. It presents a Jesus who is truly human (2:18), realistically tempted (4:15), and obedient to death (3:2; 13:12). The suffering of Jesus taught Him the value of obedience (5:8).
Hebrews also emphasizes the finality of Christ's work. The sacrifices offered by Jewish priests in the temple reminded the worshipers of sin, but the sacrifice of Christ removed sin (10:1-4). The priests of Judaism repeatedly offered sacrifices that did not take away sin (10:11). Christ's single offering of Himself forever removed the sin that hindered fellowship with God (10:12-14).
- God Has Spoken (1:1-3)
- Angels (1:4-2:18)
- Moses (3:1-19)
- Joshua (4:1-13)
- Aaron (4:14-10:18)
- Spiritual Endurance (10:19-12:29)
- Final Exhortations (13:1-25)
God has Spoken (1:1-3)
The author emphasized that God had spoken in the past through the prophets at many different times and in varied ways. He stated that the revelation God had given through Jesus was superior to that through the prophets. This was true because Jesus was the Heir, Creator, divine Reflection, Image of God, and Sustainer of the world. Jesus had cleansed our sins and then taken His seat at God's right hand as a token of His finished work.
Angels (1:4-2:18)
Our writer presented angels as servants God created to minister to believers. He portrayed Christ as God's Son, who received the worship of angels and had an eternal existence. The superiority of Christ made the failure to believe on Him a fearsome experience. The author concluded that Christ's incarnation and crucifixion enhanced His superiority and qualified Him to become a spiritual trail-blazer for believers. This was true because the sufferings of Christ better equipped Him to help us as we suffer.
Moses (3:1-19)
Christ was God's Son who reigned over the household of God's people. He was superior to Moses, who was merely a servant within God's household. Jesus' superiority to Moses made it a more serious matter to reject Jesus than to reject Moses. Our writer referred to the experience of Israel in Numbers 14:1-35 as an illustration of the seriousness of unbelief.
Joshua (4:1-13)
The writer showed that Joshua failed to lead the people of God to rest because of their unbelief. Jesus promised rest to His people if they believe and follow the promises of the gospel. This rest is not fully available in this life, but by faith we may experience a portion of its blessings now (see chap. 11).
Aaron (4:14-10:18)
Our High Priest (4:14-5:10). Our writer began with a summary of Christ's work as our High Priest. Christ is our great High Priest who represents us in God's very presence. God appointed Aaron as a high priest to represent people before God. Because Aaron was surrounded with weakness, he was able to have compassion on other weak, sinful people. Christ also faced hardship, and He learned the value of obedience by His commitment to God's will. God called Christ to serve as a high priest after the order of Melchizedek. Our author explained this idea more fully in chapter 7.
Warning against Apostasy (5:11-6:20). The immaturity of the readers prevented their usefulness and skillful performance for God. The writer warned his readers that no one could ever repeat the experience of repentance and conversion if he committed apostasy.
Some see this warning as a teaching that a true Christian can lose his salvation. That position would contradict the teaching of such New Testament passages as John 10:27-29; Romans 11:29; and Philippians 1:6. Others see the warning as hypothetical and not a realistic possibility. The repetition of the warning here and also in 10:26-31 makes this interpretation less likely. Others see the warning as directed at those who are almost Christians but not genuine Christians. In opposition to this view is the fact that a passage such as "shared in the Holy Spirit" could not be used of one who was not a Christian. The preferred interpretation is to view this passage as addressed toward professing Christians. The writer urged them to show the reality of their faith by enduring in their commitment to Christ without falling away. The writer spoke to his readers in accordance with their profession, but he urged them to show their true faith by producing real works.
The work and love the readers showed convinced the writer that none of them were apostates. However, he wanted all of them to press on to achieve full maturity by obeying the promises of God.
Melchizedek (7:1-28). The writer reached back to the story of Melchizedek (Gen. 14:17-20) to explain the nature of Jesus' priesthood. Melchizedek's name and hometown suggest that he was the "king of righteousness" and the "king of peace." The Bible did not record any beginning or ending for his life. His eternal priesthood of righteousness was like that of Christ. Abraham's action of giving tithes to Melchizedek showed that the priest was a great man.
Because the priesthood of Aaron did not bring people into obedience to God, He changed the priesthood. He installed Christ as the Priest after a new order, that of Melchizedek. Our writer felt that the priesthood of Christ was superior to that of Aaron for three reasons. First, God initiated this priesthood with an oath, not merely by some worldly rules. Second,
ARTICLE: Apostasy
Apostasy: Defection; rebellion. The classical Greek term apostasia brought to mind a military or political context and referred to rebellion against established authority. In the major English translations the actual word apostasy occurs seldom (NASB 6; RSV 3; NEB 2; NIV 0; KJV 0), but as a reference to rebellion against the Lord, the idea is widespread. In the Old Testament it is Israel's greatest national sin, that is idolatry, or forsaking the worship of the Lord (Exod. 20:3; Deut. 6:5,14; 29:14-28).
The Greek term apostasia occurs twice in the New Testament. In Acts 21:21 it refers to an accusation against Paul that he had encouraged Jews to "forsake" Moses. In 2 Thessalonians 2:3 it refers to the great defection or falling away from the faith that will precede the return of Christ.
Various other New Testament contexts point to religious defection, the causes of which vary: affliction or persecution (Matt. 13:21; 24:9-13), false teachers (Matt. 24:11; 2 Tim. 4:3-4), erroneous views of Christ (1 John 2:18-23; 2 John 7-9), and unbelief (Heb. 3:12-14).
The theological issue raised by the question of apostasy is of paramount importance. The historic doctrines of Christian assurance and the security of the believer are not, however, nullified by the fact that there are those who make Christian professions and/or attend Christian worship who later forsake, either by woreed, their earlier confession.
The Pauline doctrine of the Spirit is an unequivocal scriptural affirmation of the security of the believer. Paul's references to the Spirit as "firstfruits" (Rom. 8:23) and "pledge" (2 Cor. 1:22; Eph. 1:14) indicate that Christians have already begun to experience the gift of eternal life.
For Paul all who hear and believe the gospel receive the gift of the Spirit, which is God's pledge (promise, guarantee, earnest) of the resurrection (Eph. 1:13-14; Rom. 8:11,23,38-39). In this connection the Pauline verb "to predestine" (Rom. 8:28-30; Eph. 1:5,11) is not so much a reference to what God decided before the world began (though Paul certainly affirmed Christ's death and the mystery of the gospel as part of God's eternally predestined purpose; see 1 Cor. 2:7-8; Acts 4:27-28). Rather it is a reference to God's unalterable promise to resurrect unto glory the one who believes in Jesus. Christians are predestined to be raised like Christ. Thus, "having been justified by faith" (Rom. 5:1), having received the Spirit as God's pledge of love (Rom. 5:5; 8:35,39), we may know that "we shall be saved from the wrath of God through him" (Rom. 5:9; compare 5:10).
Hebrews 6:1-8 (esp. v. 6) is interpreted by some to refer to the realistic possibility of losing one's salvation, but the argument is hypothetical. Just as it is impossible for Christ to be crucified twice (see 9:2510:18), so also is faith a once-for-all experience (see 6:4). Furthermore, Hebrews 6:13-20 is one of the strongest affirmations in the New Testament of the certainty of our future hope, which is grounded in the faithfulness of God.
Certainly the fact of sin is a Christian tragedy, but even extremes of sin cannot nullify the promise of God (note that even the incestuous man of 1 Cor. 5:1-5, who is to be "handed over to Satan," will "be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus"). As for those who make Christian confessions only later to renounce them and defect from the faith, we may perhaps say with John, "They went out from us, but they were not really of us" (1 John 2:19).
Christ's priesthood was permanent. Christ would never deliver His office to someone unqualified to handle it. Third, the character of Christ was superior to that of the Aaronic priests. Christ was exactly the type of high priest weak believers needed.
A New Covenant (8:1-9:28). Our author indicated that in addition to beginning a new order of priesthood, Christ inaugurated a new covenant. Jeremiah 31:31-34 foretold this new covenant. It provided three benefits for those who lived under it. First, it pro vided a new awareness of God's laws and a new nature by which to obey God. Second, it gave a personal knowledge of God that inspired a loyalty and commitment to Him. Third, it provided a complete forgiveness of sins. Christians today have inherited the benefits of this new covenant in their relationship with God.
ARTICLE: Assurance, Warning and Perseverance
For many Christians who struggle to understand their faith and the meaning of salvation, the question of security looms very large. Texts like John 10:27-29 affirm that no one will pluck them out of the hand of the Lord. They seem to provide assurance concerning security.
Texts like Hebrews 6:4-6 and 10:26-27, however, with the warnings of the impossibility of being renewed, seem to offer insecurity. Because this issue of security touches Christians at a deep level, a few would like to reword the texts of Hebrews or dismiss the entire book from their authoritative canon.
This way of dealing with the New Testament will not work because such disturbing texts can be found throughout other parts of the Bible (see 1 Cor. 10:6-22). Instead, we must realize that there is a built-in tension written into the biblical texts. Remember that God knows what people are like and that Jesus was not confused by their "believing" (John 2:23-25). Remember also that in Hebrews 6 there is not just one "impossible" but two (6:4,18): the one a warning and the other an assurance.
This built-in tension in the Bible reminds us that when God sent Jesus, He was not playing a game. The cross was the most serious moment in the history of the world. God expects us to treat it with utmost seriousness. Believing is not just a matter of words; it involves the way we live (see Jas. 2:14-26). Therefore the entire Bible is laced with warnings about the way we live.
Nevertheless, we must also understand that we do not save ourselves, whether it is at the beginning point of justification (Rom. 3:21-31) or throughout our lives to the point of death and our glorification (Rom. 6:22-23).
It is by the gracious working of God that we are renewed daily (2 Cor. 4:16). Our security then is not rooted in our ability to save or uphold ourselves. Our security is in the power of God to save and to forgive us repeatedly since we all continue to sin (1 John 1:8-10).
This life therefore is a pilgrimage with God. It is a pilgrimage that takes seriously both assurance and warning. In this pilgrimage we have a sense of security outlined in the classical definition of the "perseverance of the saints." This means that those who continue to believe in Christ will attain their heavenly rest (Heb. 4:9-13; 2 Thess. 2:13-15).
The contemporary popularized statement "once saved, always saved," however, can create a problem because it is an unfortunate oversimplification of this classical doctrine. It makes God's gracious working with us a static momentary action that loses the emphasis of pilgrimage and the great struggle of Christian life reflected throughout the New Testament, to say nothing of the similar Old Testament messages about God and His people.
The purpose of the Bible is twofold. (1) Everything possible is done in the midst of a hostile world to call Christians to a faithful life. (2) Everything possible is done to remind Christians of the assurance of God, who calls them to draw near to the throne of grace (Heb. 4:16).
This tension between assurance and warning is the context for Christian living. Tension is present throughout the Bible because the Bible deals with the intersection of human weakness and divine strength. Genuine Christians take seriously the warnings of the Bible and rely firmly upon its gracious assurances.
The old covenant made provision for removing external pollution by the use of animal sacrifices and familiar rituals. Under the new covenant Jesus surrendered His life to God in sacrifice for sin.
The sacrifice of Christ is more effective for us today in three ways. First, it did not limit itself to the mere removal of ceremonial pollution. It cleansed the conscience from guilt and thus inspired holy living. Second, it resulted in the removal of sin by the shedding of Christ's blood. Third, by entering God's presence, Christ showed that He has offered a perfect sacrifice. Because Christ has fully removed all sins, Christians have the hope that He will one day return to complete their salvation by taking them to be with the Father.
Once for All (10:1-18). The author explained the permanence of Christ's sacrifice. The repetition of the sacrifices offered by the Jews on their Day of Atonement (Lev. 16) could never make the worshipers perfect. Their sacrifices served as an annual reminder of the sins of the people. What God truly wanted was not merely the offering of an unthinking animal but a conscious, volitional choice to follow Him. That is what Jesus gave when He came to do God's will. Jesus' choice to offer Himself as a sacrifice for our sin earned for Christians acceptance in God's sight. The constant offering of Levitical sacrifices testified that sins still remained. The once-for-all death of Christ forever took away all sins. When these sins are removed, no further need for sacrifice remains.
The Practice of Spiritual Endurance (10:19-12:29)
Stamina in Obedience (10:19-39). The writer of Hebrews found the readers tempted to pull away from Christ. Hebrews attempted to call them to God and to fellowship with one another by describing a veil by which all believers could enter God's presence. This veil symbolized the life of Jesus presented to God when He suffered for our sins (1 Pet. 3:18). Because Christians had complete access to God, they could draw near to Him with an inward and outward cleansing. They also needed to consider how to stimulate one another to good works by meeting together.
In no instance should Christians fall into a pattern of neglecting fellowship with one another. The author warned his readers that turning away from Christ would expose them to divine judgment. He insisted that his readers show genuine faith by continued commitment to Christ. They had already suffered for their faith, but they needed to demonstrate stamina in obeying God.
Heroes of Faith (11:1-40). As an incentive to endurance before God, the writer presented a gallery of Old Testament heroes of faith. Faith gives reality to things that cannot be seen. By this faith the Old Testament believers received a positive witness from God. In the generations before the flood, Abel, Enoch, and Noah all responded by faith to demonstrate obedience to God. Their faith pleased Him. Abraham demonstrated his faith by forsaking the comforts of Ur and Haran to follow God to the promised land. By faith Abraham and Sarah bore Isaac as a child of their old age. Moses showed his faith by leaving the wealth of the Egyptian palace to suffer hardship with the Hebrew people. The writer presented Gideon, Samson, David, Samuel, and many other heroes as examples whose faith Christians should follow. The promises the Old Testament believers had expected were coming true in the events New Testament Christians were experiencing.
Endure (12:1-29). The writer also found encouragement for endurance from Jesus' example. Jesus had already run the race of faith, and God had placed Him on the throne. When Christians consider the hardship He faced, they can find strength and fresh courage. God allows all Christians to experience hardship so that they might develop holiness. Even though God's chastisement seems hard for the time, it will eventually produce righteousness in those who follow Him.
The character of God provided another incentive for endurance. God desires that all persons seek after holiness. God will not tolerate a disobedient, self-serving lifestyle. The presence of God at Sinai caused thunder, lightning, and fright among the people who saw Him. If God's speaking on earth at Sinai produced fear, how much more would His words from heaven through Jesus produce fear! The writer showed that God's kingdom was unmovable. This gives Christians the grace to serve Him with stamina and reverence.
Final Exhortations (13:1-25)
Christians have practical duties with one another. They must show sympathy to those in prison, and they must avoid all immorality. God has promised never to leave Christians, and that promise helps to banish greed.
ARTICLE: Old and New Covenant
Definitionally, a covenant is an agreement between two parties, whether equals or not, that signified a relationship whereby the two bound themselves to each other, either conditionally or unconditionally.
Theologically, the term was used to describe the relationship God initiated by His grace between Himself and humankind to those who were willing to bind themselves through a personal commitment of faith. This is reflected in the oft-occurring phrase in the Old Testament "I will be their God and they shall be my people."
A covenant was made by a sacrifice. Hence the Hebrew idiom for its establishment was "to cut a covenant" (Gen. 15:7-21). From God's perspective
His covenant is unconditional and unilateral in establishment, but from humankind's perspective it is conditional and two-sided. God commands His people to keep His covenant through obedience and alternatively judges and blesses them according to their response.
The word covenant in the New Testament is diatheke, and it functions as the equivalent for the Old Testament berit. It occurs thirty-three times, nearly half of which are either Old Testament quotations or references to the Old Testament covenants. But the concept of the "new covenant" did not originate in the New Testament, for Jeremiah 31:31-34 speaks of God's intention to establish a new covenant.
The phrase "new covenant" is found six times in the New Testament: 1 Corinthians 11:25; 2 Corinthians 3:6; Hebrews 8:8; 9:15; 12:24. The new covenant is the fulfillment of the old in that it is identified with the death of Jesus and the Christian age. It is superior to the old covenant according to Hebrews 7:20-22; 8:6 and displaces the old according to Hebrews 8:13; 10:9.
The new covenant was established by the shed blood of Jesus on the cross. In the Gospel accounts of the last supper, it was Jesus Himself who related His coming death to the establishment of the new covenant. He is, by virtue of His death, the Mediator of a new covenant (Heb. 9:15; 12:24). The sacrificial offering by Jesus on the cross constituted the beginning of the new covenant and is complete and unrepeatable. Entrance into the covenant relationship is by faith in Christ.
The Book of Hebrews is the New Testament epistle most concerned with the relationship between the old and new covenants. The writer's intent was to show both continuity and discontinuity between the two covenants.
Continuity can be seen in that God is the initiator of both covenants, and both are based on sacrifice. Discontinuity can be seen in that the new covenant supersedes the old due to the final nature of the death of Christ.
The old covenant was enacted upon inferior promises, lacked finality, and lacked efficacy in that it provided no power to keep its conditions. In contrast, the new covenant is unconditional, final, and spiritually efficacious.
Christians must follow the faith of their leaders. When Christians submit to those who care for their spiritual needs, this allows the leaders to do their jobs with joy and not with hardship or frustration.
God is pleased with spiritual sacrifices that Christians offer. These sacrifices are commitment, praise, and unselfish sharing of goods.
In the last section of Hebrews the author urged prayer for himself and reported on Timothy's release from prison. He shared a doxology in 13:20-21 and an expression of greeting in 13:24-25.
Theological Significance. The author of Hebrews points us to the superiority of Jesus Christ. He is superior to the prophets (1:1-3), superior to the angels (1:42:18), and to Moses (3:14:13). He provides a superior priesthood on the basis of a superior covenant (4:14-10:31). Not only is Jesus superior to the foundational aspects of Judaism, but He also is superior to any aspect of contemporary religion. This means that Jesus is not just one good option among many ways of drawing near to God; He is the only way. Because of the superiority of Jesus we must not neglect such a great salvation that He has provided with His sacrificial death (2:3; 10:1-18).
Jesus, the superior Savior, is also the superior Priest. We can come to Him in times of trouble, suffering, and struggle. In Him we will find a sympathetic Priest (4:14-16) who offers grace in time of need. Thus we can and should draw near to Him in worship (10:19-25), live by faith (11:1-40), persevere to the end (12:1-29), and live a life of love (13:1-25).
Questions for Reflection
- In what way is Christ superior to the angels (1:5-14)?
- What is the significance of suggesting that Christ is a priest after the order of Melchizedek (7:1-10)?
- Why was the sacrifice of Christ more effective than that of the Old Testament priests (10:1-18)?
- What were some of the specific deeds of faith the Old Testament heroes in Hebrews 11 performed?
- How does the writer of Hebrews explain God's purpose in chastisement (12:4-11)?
- What are some of the sacrifices that please God (13:9-16)?
Sources for Additional Study
Brown, Raymond. The Message of Hebrews. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1982.
Bruce, F. F. The Epistle to the Hebrews. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.
Guthrie, Donald. Hebrews. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983.
Guthrie, George. Hebrews. NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998.