Jeremiah

Jeremiah

According to the book's heading, Jeremiah was a priest from Anathoth whose prophetic career began in the thirteenth year of Josiah (627-626 b.c.) and continued until the final exile of Judah in 586. Chapters 39-44 indicate that Jeremiah continued to minister after the fall of Jerusalem and was forced to accompany a group of exiles to Egypt.

Historical Background. Jeremiah lived during the final days of the Kingdom of Judah. The revival under King Josiah (who ruled from 640-609 b.c.) and the fall of the Assyrian empire (in 612-609) seemingly offered some hope for Judah. The nation's rebellious spirit, however, coupled with the rise of the Babylonians as the new power of the Near East, made calamity inevitable. When Jeremiah denounced Josiah's successors, Jehoahaz (609), Jehoiakim (609-598), Jehoiachin (598-597), and Zedekiah (597-586), he was threatened, imprisoned, and humiliated. Though complaining at times to the Lord, Jeremiah continued to warn of impending judgment.

That judgment came through the Babylonians. In 612 b.c. they conquered Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. In 609 they defeated the last remnant of Assyrian power at Haran. By this time the Egyptians had allied themselves with Assyria in an attempt to stem the Babylonian tide and maintain the balance of power. When they marched northward to help the Assyrians in 609, Josiah tried to stop them and lost his life. His son Jehoahaz took the throne of Judah, but the Egyptians took him into exile three months later and replaced him with his brother Jehoiakim.

In 605 b.c. the Babylonians established themselves as the premier power of the Near East by defeating the Egyptians at Carchemish. Though loyal to Babylon for a time, Jehoiakim eventually rebelled. The Babylonians besieged Jerusalem and in 597 conquered the city. They replaced Jehoiakim's son Jehoiachin, who had only ruled for three months following the death of his father, with his uncle Zedekiah. After remaining loyal to Babylon for a short time, Zedekiah also rebelled.

In 588 b.c. Nebuchadnezzar invaded Judah and began a long siege of Jerusalem that culminated with the fall of the city in August 586. The Babylonians carried many into exile, but some survivors were allowed to remain in the land under the authority of Gedaliah, a governor appointed by the Babylonians. However, in October 586 a small band of dissidents assassinated Gedaliah. Fearing a Babylonian reprisal, many fled to Egypt. Jeremiah, who opposed this course of action and insisted that the Babylonians would not punish the people, was forced to go with the fugitives to Egypt.

Theme. Like so many of the other writing prophets of the Old Testament, Jeremiah promised that God would ultimately fulfill His ideal for Israel, but only after a time of purifying judgment and exile. God would not tolerate unfaithfulness among His people. Judgment would sweep away covenant violators and pave the way for the establishment of a new covenant.

MAP: The Neo-Babylonian Empire

Literary Form. The book contains a variety of literary types, including prophetic messages given in both poetic and prose style and biographical accounts of Jeremiah's ministry. The first half of the book includes a number of dialogues between Jeremiah and the Lord in which the prophet poured out his heart in prayer. Reports of symbolic acts are also included.

Chapters 1-24 focus on the sin and impending judgment of Judah. The scope of the book broadens in chapters 25-52, where judgment oracles against the nations and messages of Judah's ultimate restoration appear.

A comparison of the Hebrew with the ancient Greek version of Jeremiah suggests that two canonical versions of Jeremiah's prophecies may have circulated in the intertestamental period. The Greek version is about 12 to 13 percent shorter than its Hebrew counterpart, omitting single verses as well as longer sections. The Greek version also arranges the oracles against the nations (chaps. 46-51 in the Hebrew text) differently and places them earlier in the book (as chaps. 25-31).

1. Jeremiah's Call (1:1-19)
2. Judah's Downfall (2:1-24:10)
3. Judah's Alternatives (25:1-51:60)
4. A Historical Epilogue (52:1-34)

Purpose and Theology. Jeremiah accused Judah of breaking their covenant with the Lord. He denounced the people's unfaithfulness to God, which was seen most clearly in their idolatry and foreign alliances. The leadership of the nation was particularly corrupt. The kings neglected to ensure justice and even persecuted God's prophet. At the same time, false prophets promised deliverance and prosperity.

Jeremiah warned the people not to listen to these lying prophets. The Lord was about to punish Judah for its breach of covenant by bringing upon the nation the curses Moses threatened (see Deut. 27-28). Famine and the sword would destroy multitudes, while many others would go into exile. Jeremiah's warnings of certain doom were fulfilled in 586 b.c., when Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians, an event described in the book's later chapters.

Though much of the book is devoted to the themes of sin and judgment, Jeremiah did see a light at the end of the tunnel. God would someday judge Judah's enemies, including the mighty Babylonians. He would restore His exiled people and make a new covenant with them, enabling them to willingly obey His commandments. The Lord would also restore the Davidic throne and raise up an ideal king who would ensure peace and justice in the land.

Jeremiah's Call (1:1-19)

For discussion of the heading, see the introduction. Before Jeremiah's conception and birth, the Lord had chosen him to be His prophet. When Jeremiah objected that he was too young and inarticulate for the task, the Lord assured him of His protective presence. The prophet's divinely appointed words would determine the destiny of nations.

Through a pun based on a vision, the Lord assured the prophet that the divine message spoken through him would be fulfilled. When Jeremiah identified an almond branch ( saqed), the Lord punned on its name, announcing that He was "watching" ( soqed) carefully to assure the realization of the prophetic word.

Through another vision, that of a boiling pot tilting southward, the Lord revealed that Jeremiah's message would be one of impending judgment. The boiling pot symbolized foreign armies that would invade the land from the north as instruments of judgments against God's idolatrous people.

The Lord exhorted Jeremiah to declare His word boldly and fearlessly, promising him protection from his hostile audience.

Judah's Downfall (2:1-24:10)

These chapters contain several judgment oracles against God's people, as well as many of the prophet's emotionally charged prayers to and dialogues with the Lord. The major theme of the section is sinful Judah's coming downfall, yet glimpses of future restoration also appear.

God Accuses His Unfaithful People (2:1-3:5). Israel's history was one of apostasy. Early Israel had faithfully followed the Lord and enjoyed His protection. Later generations turned to idols, forgot the Lord's mighty deeds, and defiled the land God had graciously given them. Even the priests, civil leaders, and prophets abandoned the Lord.

Unlike pagans, who maintained loyalty to their worthless gods, Israel exchanged their glorious God and His blessings for useless idols. Consequently they suffered humiliation at the hands of foreigners. Still they sought protective alliances with these same nations.

The Lord compared rebellious and idolatrous Israel to a prostitute and to a good grapevine turned wild. Their guilt was like an irremovable stain in the sight of God. In their frantic pursuit of false gods they were like a skittish female camel dashing about or a lusty female donkey pursuing a mate. Idolatry can only result in shame. The people's idols would prove futile in the coming crisis.

Despite their unfaithfulness, the people claimed to be innocent and accused the Lord of treating them unfairly. In response the Lord pointed to their blatant rebellion and shameless acts of idolatry throughout the land.

Judah's Alternatives (3:6-6:30). A Call for Repentance (3:6-4:4). Idolatrous Judah was even more corrupt than their sister, the Northern Kingdom, had been. Though the Lord had swept the Northern Kingdom away into exile, Judah had not learned from their northern sister's example. The time for decision had come. Judah's only hope was to repent. The Lord appealed to His faithless people to confess their sins, turn from their idols, and commit themselves to the Lord with renewed devotion. He promised to give them godly leaders and make Jerusalem the focal point of His worldwide rule. Nations would travel to the city to worship the Lord. Judah would be reunited with the exiled Northern Kingdom and would possess the promised land.

Invasion from the North (4:5-31). The alternative to repentance was destruction. If Judah persisted in its sin, the Lord would bring a mighty army down from the north to devastate the land. Reference is made to the Babylonians, who would attack with the ferocity of a lion, the power of a whirlwind, and the swiftness of an eagle. The people would flee for their lives; and Jerusalem, abandoned to its doom by its idol-gods, would cry out in panic. Conditions in the ruined and deserted land would resemble those prior to creation, when the earth was formless, empty, and shrouded in darkness.

Throughout the chapter dramatic speeches and vivid imagery are used to emphasize the urgency of the hour. Calls to alarm, lamentations, denunciations, a taunt, and an impassioned appeal for repentance are combined with striking descriptions of the invaders and their effect upon the land.

A Sinful Society Condemned (5:1-31). Chapter 5 reiterates why judgment was impending. Without exception the residents of Jerusalem had resisted the Lord's discipline and rebelled against His commandments. Idolatry and sexual immorality were prevalent throughout the land. The people believed the false prophets' message of security. Rich, powerful men exploited others and neglected the cause of the weak and oppressed. Instead of repenting and recognizing God as the source of their blessings, the people stubbornly continued in their sinful ways. Judgment was inevitable for such a nation. The fearsome Babylonians would devour their crops and herds, kill their children, and destroy their cities. Since God's people insisted on acting like pagans, they would serve pagans in a pagan land.

Jerusalem Attacked (6:1-30). The invasion threatened in chapters 4 and 5 now takes on even more frightening pro-portions as the coming siege of Jerusalem is depicted. In succession one hears the Lord's call of alarm to the residents of Benjamin and Judah, the enemy army's call to war, the Lord's summons to this army, a warning to Jerusalem, and the Lord's authorization of foreigners to "glean" His people.

The prophet then interjected a word. Though the people were obstinate and rejected his message of judgment, he was compelled to continue preaching it. God encouraged him to persevere in his proclamation of coming wrath because judgment was inevitable for such a corrupt nation. Even the religious leaders were greedy and deceitful. They glossed over the nation's dire situation and proclaimed a message of false hope. The people refused to obey God's law or to listen to His prophets. Their empty sacrifices would not prevent the coming disaster. The mighty northern army would march relentlessly forward, causing terror and grief among the people. In conclusion the Lord compared Jeremiah's role to that of a metal tester. Having seen the people's moral character revealed in their response to his ministry, Jeremiah observed that they were rebels in need of the hot, purifying fires of divine judgment.

Hypocrisy and Idolatry (7:1-10:25). False Confidence (7:1-8:3). The people of Judah believed they were safe because the temple, the Lord's dwelling place, was in their midst. The Lord denounced this false confidence, pointing out that only genuine repentance could save such unjust, violent, and idolatrous people. He reminded them of the example of Shiloh, a former dwelling place of the Lord which had not been spared destruction when God judged His wicked people. Though the people brought Him sacrifices, the Lord rejected them as meaningless and hypocritical. He demanded loyalty, not empty ritual. While the people gave the Lord lip service, they also prepared offerings for the "Queen of Heaven" (the Babylonian goddess Ishtar). They sacrificed their children in the Valley of Ben Hinnom south of the city and worshiped the sun, moon, and stars. Apart from repentance, judgment was inevitable. The Valley of Ben Hinnom would be called the Valley of Slaughter, for there the carcasses of the idolaters would be devoured by scavengers. The invaders would desecrate the tombs of the city, leaving the bones exposed to the light of the heavenly bodies the deceased once worshiped.

Punishment and Lamentation (8:4-9:26). Though the people claimed to be wise because they possessed God's law, their actions contradicted their words. They disobeyed that same law, refused to repent, and believed the religious leaders who promised peace and safety. The Lord would deprive them of their crops and bring into the land a mighty army, likened to deadly serpents. In that day the doomed and despairing people would lament their fate and acknowledge that their previous hope had been misplaced.

Jeremiah was emotionally shaken by this message of judgment. He described the future cry of the exiles, who in bewilderment would try to reconcile their belief in Jerusalem's inviolability with their situation. He lamented that there was no cure for the nation's sickness and that he did not have enough tears to weep around the clock. He longed to run away, for he recognized that wickedness was everywhere. Even the closest human relationships were polluted by deceit and exploitation.

The time for mourning and lamentation had come, for destruction and exile were on the way. Embodied in the Babylonian army, death would invade the cities and houses of the land, robbing the women of their children and robust young men.

In the coming day of judgment, human wisdom, strength, and riches would be of no avail. Security could only be found in loyalty to the Lord, who as a faithful and just God looks for and rewards these same qualities in His people. Traditional outward signs of a relationship with God, such as circumcision, would also be worthless, if not accompanied by genuine devotion to the Lord (likened in 9:26 to circumcision of the heart; see 4:4). Because God's people lacked this devotion, their physical circumcision would be as useless as that of Gentiles who also observed this practice. Israel would be swept away with the nations mentioned in the coming Babylonian invasion of the west.

The Incomparable Lord (10:1-16). The Lord exhorted His people to reject their pagan gods. The man-made wooden and metal idol-gods were inactive and as lifeless as scarecrows. In response Jeremiah praised the Lord, whose greatness infinitely surpasses that of idols. The Lord is the true, living, and eternal God, who created and controls the physical universe and determines the destinies of nations.

Jeremiah's Lament (10:17-25). Since God's people had rejected their sovereign King for idols, judgment remained inevitable and lamentation appropriate. Continuing the mood of earlier chapters, the prophet lamented the nation's incurable sickness and impending doom. Appealing to God's justice, he pled that the coming judgment not be unduly harsh and that God would eventually punish the nations for their mistreatment of His people.

Warnings against Rebellion (11:1-13:27). Breach of Covenant (11:1-17). The Lord reminded His people of the covenant that was to govern their relationship. After the Lord delivered their forefathers from Egypt, He made an agreement with them. If they obeyed His commandments, He promised to be their God and give them the promised land. However, throughout their history the people disobeyed God's law, bringing the punishment (the "curses") threatened in the covenant. Jeremiah's generation had followed in their forefathers' steps by worshiping Baal and other foreign gods. Consequently, they too had to experience the curses of the covenant.

Opposition to Jeremiah (11:18-12:6). As the Lord's messenger of judgment, Jeremiah faced opposition, even in his hometown of Anathoth, where some plotted to take his life. Though the prophet had not suspected their hostile intentions, the Lord revealed their schemes. Jeremiah trusted the Lord to vindicate and avenge him. The Lord declared that Jeremiah's enemies would be violently and thoroughly destroyed.

The dialogue between the Lord and His prophet continues in chapter 12. Knowing that God is just, Jeremiah was troubled by the prosperity of the wicked. Confident that God was aware of his loyal character, the prophet asked the Lord to judge the wicked so that the land might be released from the curse that the sin of the wicked had brought upon it. This time the Lord offered no messages of judgment (see 11:21-23). He warned Jeremiah that the situation would become far worse and that even members of his own family would conspire against him.

The Lord Abandons and Reclaims His Inheritance (12:7-17). Though the Lord regarded Judah as His special possession, its hostility forced Him to abandon it. He would allow foreigners to desolate the land. However, He would someday punish these same nations and restore His exiled people to their land. Any nation that then turned to the Lord would be restored, while those that rejected His rule would be annihilated.

An Object Lesson and a Parable (13:1-27). The Lord instructed Jeremiah to purchase, wear, and then bury a linen belt. Days later He told the prophet to dig up the now rotten and useless belt. Just as a fine belt brings its owner compliments, so God had intended to glorify Himself through His people. But their pride, stubbornness, and idolatry made them useless. Consequently He would ruin their pride through judgment, just as Jeremiah's belt was ruined by the elements.

The Lord also used a parable to illustrate the coming judgment. Jeremiah was to make the observation that wineskins should be filled with wine. When the people rebuked him for making such an obvious remark, he was to explain the symbolism behind his statement. Just as wineskins were to be used for their designed purpose, so God would deal with His sinful people appropriately. Like wineskins filled with wine, they would be filled with "drunkenness," which is a figurative reference to the staggering effects of God's thorough punishment.

Just as persons cannot change their skin color or a leopard its spots, so the people could not change their propensity for evil. The darkness of judgment would descend on the incorrigible nation, and the people would be swept away into exile like chaff before the wind.

Jeremiah's Prayers (14:1-15:21). Famine and Sword Are Inevitable (14:1-18). Jeremiah lamented that a severe drought had swept over the land, confessed the nation's sin, and asked the Lord to restore His favor. In response the Lord pointed to the nation's wickedness, instructed Jeremiah to cease interceding for the people, and announced He would not accept their hypocritical sacrifices. Jeremiah blamed the nation's condition on the false prophets and their promises of peace. These liars would be destroyed with the rest of the nation.

Prophetic Intercession Is Futile (14:19-15:9). Once more Jeremiah interceded for the nation, lamenting its condition, confessing its sin, and asking the Lord to intervene. He acknowledged that the Lord was incomparable to the idol-gods and that He alone was the source of the nation's blessings. The Lord declared that not even Moses or Samuel could effectively intercede for such a wicked people. The sins of King Manasseh had angered Him (see 2 Kgs. 21:1-18), and the people had not changed their ways. God decreed that death, famine, and exile would sweep through the land.

The Lord Vindicates His Prophet (15:10-21). Jeremiah once again lamented the opposition he experienced (see 12:1-4). Though he was innocent of wrongdoing and had faithfully declared the Lord's word, he suffered reproach. He questioned God's dependability and asked the Lord to take up his cause. The Lord assured him of divine protection and vindication before his enemies. However, the prophet had to confess his lack of faith and persevere in his mission.

Warnings and Exhortations (16:1-17:27). Jeremiah's Restrictions Foreshadow Judgment (16:1-17:4). The Lord placed several restrictions on Jeremiah that foreshadowed the effects of the coming judgment. Jeremiah was not to take a wife in order to show the devastating effects of judgment upon the nation's families. Many would be left without children and spouses. The prophet was forbidden to attend a funeral, for after the coming disaster people would not even have the opportunity to mourn the dead. Neither was he to attend a feast, for judgment would bring a cessation of joyous celebrations throughout the land.

Once again the Lord pointed out that the people's idolatry had brought this calamity. Though the Lord would someday restore His people to the land through a grand new exodus, the immediate future was only dark. The invaders, like fishermen and hunters, would pursue the people relentlessly. The Lord would repay them double for their idolatry. They would forfeit their place in the promised land and live as slaves in a distant, foreign place.

Contrasting Fates of the Wicked and Righteous (17:5-11). The Lord stopped to contrast the wicked and the righteous. Those trusting in human strength and rejecting the Lord were doomed to experience extreme discomfort and eventual death. But those trusting the Lord would flourish, even in times of crisis. Though people can be exceedingly deceptive, God is capable of piercing their minds and motives and dealing with them in a just manner.

Jeremiah's Prayer (17:12-18). Appealing to this all-knowing and just God, Jeremiah asserted his faithfulness to his commission and asked that he be vindicated before his persecutors.

Sabbath Commands (17:19-27). Once more the Lord offered the people an opportunity to exhibit a repentant attitude. He exhorted the whole nation, including its king, to demonstrate their loyalty to Him by observing His requirements concerning the Sabbath Day. If they kept it holy by refraining from work, the Lord would bless them and accept their offerings. However, if they rejected this test of obedience, the threatened calamity would come in full force.

The Potter (18:1-20:18). A Marred Pot and an Unpopular Prophet (18:1-23). The Lord sent Jeremiah to a potter's house, where he illustrated His sovereign control over Judah. As Jeremiah watched the potter shaping a pot, the clay was marred. The potter reshaped the marred clay into a different style pot. The Lord explained that His people were like clay in His hands, which He is free to reshape in accordance with His desires. When He threatens to destroy a sinful nation, He remains willing to reshape that nation's destiny if they are repentant. When He plans to bless a nation, He will alter His purpose if they are disobedient. Though He had once blessed His people, He was now planning disaster against them because of their idolatry and disobedience. Repentance would reshape their destiny, but they refused God's offer.

Jeremiah's proclamation of these truths was not well-received. The residents of Judah and Jerusalem plotted against the prophet, causing him to protest his innocence and again seek vindication from the Lord.

A Broken Jar and a Disillusioned Prophet (19:1-20:18). The Lord instructed Jeremiah to buy a jar from a potter and then take some of the civil leaders and priests out to the Valley of Ben Hinnom (see 7:31). Once there the prophet was to pronounce scathing judgment against Jerusalem because of the idolatry and child sacrifice its residents carried on in the valley. He was then to break the jar, illustrating what God would do to the city. This idolatrous valley would become a burial ground for the slaughtered idolaters.

Having carried out his commission, Jeremiah went to the temple and delivered another announcement of judgment. Pashhur, one of the leading temple officials, had Jeremiah imprisoned and beaten. When released, Jeremiah gave Pashhur the symbolic name Magor-Missabib (meaning terror all around) and announced that this official would witness the death of his friends and the exile of the nation. Passhur would die and be buried in a foreign land.

Embarrassed and angry, Jeremiah poured out his heart before the Lord. His words reflect his confused emotions and perspective. He accused the Lord of deception and complained of being caught between a rock and a hard place. When he proclaimed the Lord's word, he was insulted and abused. If he held back from preaching the message, the divine word burned within him until he was forced to declare it. In a sudden burst of confidence Jeremiah affirmed his trust in the Lord. Just as quickly he sank back into depression and cursed the day of his birth.

Kings and False Prophets (21:1-24:10). Messages from King Zedekiah's reign begin and end this section. In between are oracles concerning the Davidic throne, Zedekiah's predecessors (Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, and Jehoiachin), and the false prophets.

Messages against Judah's Final Kings (21:1-23:8). Zedekiah sent messengers to Jeremiah in hopes that the Lord might miraculously deliver Jerusalem from the Babylonian armies. The Lord declared that He was fighting with the Babylonians and would not rescue the city. Jerusalem would be ravaged by plague, famine, and sword. Zedekiah and the city's survivors would be handed over to the Babylonians (see 2 Kgs. 25:5-7). Those who wished to escape the slaughter should surrender to Nebuchadnezzar immediately.

Jeremiah 21:11-22:9 contains two exhortations, addressed generally to the royal house. Both focus on the necessity for justice. They come from a time when repentance was still an option and the people were still boasting Jerusalem could never fall. The Lord reminded the king of his obligation to promote justice, warning that a failure in this regard would bring severe consequences. He threatened proud Jerusalem with judgment as well.

The next speech comes after the death of Josiah and the Egyptian exile of his son Shallum (Jehoahaz), both of which occurred in 609 b.c. (see 2 Kgs. 23:29-34). The people were to cease mourning for Josiah and lament Jehoahaz, for the latter's fate (death in exile) was even more foreboding for the nation than Josiah's death had been.

The next oracle (Jer. 23:13-23) concerns Jehoiakim, another of Josiah's sons and Jehoahaz's successor. The Lord denounced the unjust practices used by Jehoiakim in building a beautiful new palace. Jehoiakim's exploitation of the citizenry stood in stark contrast to his father Josiah's righteousness. Josiah's concern for justice in his realm was proof that he truly acknowledged the Lord's authority. Humiliation would overtake proud Jehoiakim and his city.

The future was also dark for Jehoiachin, Jehoiakim's son and successor. The Lord would reject him as king and hand him over to Nebuchadnezzar. He would spend the rest of his days in exile (see 2 Kgs. 24:8-17). None of his sons would occupy his throne.

In the final oracle of the section the Lord announced the impending judgment of the "shepherds" (or rulers) of the nation, who had misled, rather than cared for, His people. Though the people would be scattered in exile, the Lord would eventually restore a remnant to the land and give them competent leaders. In that day an ideal Davidic king would reign in justice and bring peace to the land.

Messages against False Prophets (23:9-40). The Lord's judgment was about to fall upon the false prophets who failed to denounce evil and promised the people peace and security. None of these prophets had access to the Lord's heavenly council or received revelation from Him, yet they claimed to be His messengers.

Two Baskets of Figs (24:1-10). Following the exile of Jehoiachin in 597 b.c., the Lord gave Jeremiah another object lesson. He showed the prophet two baskets, one filled with tasty figs and the other with inedible ones. The good figs represented those already exiled in Babylon. The Lord would care for them and eventually restore the exiles to the land. The bad figs represented Jehoiachin's successor Zedekiah, his officials, those who remained in Jerusalem, and those who had gone to Egypt. They would experience humiliation and eventual destruction.

Judgment and Restoration (25:1-51:64)

These chapters outline God's future program in detail. The theme of judgment upon Judah, introduced in chapters 1-24, is developed. This section also describes divine judgment on a universal scale, as well as the future restoration of God's people.

The theme of universal judgment begins (chap. 25) and ends (chaps. 46-51) this section, with the downfall of Babylon being highlighted. In between appear two subsections (chaps. 26-35 and chaps. 36-45), both of which begin and end with material dating from Jehoiakim's reign.

Universal Judgment (25:1-38). This oracle is dated to Jehoiakim's fourth year (605 b.c.). Through faithful prophets like Jeremiah, the Lord had repeatedly called the nation to repentance. They had rejected the offer and persisted in idolatry. The day of reckoning had come. Nebuchadnezzar's armies would sweep down from the north and overrun Judah and the neighboring states. These nations would serve Babylon for seventy years, after which time the Lord would overthrow their oppressor. This prophecy of Babylon's doom was fulfilled in 538 when the Persians defeated the Chaldean empire and conquered Babylon.

The coming judgment of the nations is likened to an intoxicating cup passed from mouth to mouth. Judah would take the first swig, followed by several other nations. Finally Babylon, referred to here by its code-name Sheshach (see 51:41), would be forced to take a draft from the Lord's cup. The Lord's judgment is described with other vivid images, including a deafening storm, the slaughter of sheep, the shattering of a pot, and a raging lion.

Exile and Restoration (26:1-35:19). This section begins and ends with events from Jehoiakim's time. These two chapters contrast Judah's rejection of God's prophet with the devotion of the Recabites. The intervening chapters date from the time of Zedekiah. Chapters 27-29 and 34, which condemn the nation's corrupt civil and religious leaders, provide a frame around the messages of hope and restoration in chapters 30-33.

Jeremiah's Life Threatened (26:1-24). Early in the reign of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah delivered a message to worshipers at the temple. Disaster was coming if the people refused to repent of their sinful ways. The temple would be destroyed like the shrine at Shiloh, which had once been the Lord's dwelling place (see 7:12-14).

Those who heard his message, including the priests and false prophets, grabbed Jeremiah and threatened to kill him. When royal officials intervened, the priests and prophets accused him of treason. Jeremiah declared that the Lord had sent him, again issued a call to repentance, and protested his innocence. The officials and the people objected to the religious leaders' charge. Several elders reminded the crowd of an event in the nation's history about one hundred years before. The prophet Micah had announced that the city and temple would be destroyed (see 26:18 with Mic. 3:12). On that occasion Hezekiah repented, and God postponed judgment. The elders warned that Jeremiah's opponents were about to bring a terrible disaster upon the city. Ahikam, a high-ranking official in the royal court, also interceded for Jeremiah, and he was spared.

However, a parenthetical note informs us that not all of the Lord's prophets were as fortunate as Jeremiah. One of Jeremiah's contemporaries, Uriah, was forced to flee to Egypt when one of his prophecies of judgment angered King Jehoiakim. Jehoiakim had Uriah extradited and executed.

Jeremiah Confronts the False Prophets (27:1-29:32). Early in Zedekiah's reign Jeremiah warned the people not to believe the false prophets' messages of hope and peace. In accordance with the Lord's instructions, Jeremiah made a yoke and placed it on his neck. He then sent messages to the kings of the surrounding nations, informing them that Nebuchadnezzar would subjugate their lands. They were not to believe their lying prophets and diviners who were advocating resistance and predicting deliverance. Resistance would only bring disaster and exile. They should submit to Nebuchadnezzar's authority (symbolized by the yoke) so that they might remain in their lands. The message was the same for Zedekiah. He should reject the messages of hope delivered by the false prophets, who were even promising that the temple articles already carried away to Babylon would be returned. Zedekiah should submit to Nebuchadnezzar's yoke in order to spare the city and the temple further suffering and humiliation.

In that same year Hananiah, one of the false prophets, confronted Jeremiah in the temple (28:1). He declared that within two years the Lord would deliver Judah from the Babylonians, restore the temple articles, and return Jehoiachin and the other exiles. After expressing his personal desire that Judah might experience such blessings, Jeremiah reminded Hananiah that historically the Lord's prophets had been messengers of judgment. Prophets of peace could only be authenticated when their predictions came true. In response Hananiah removed the wooden yoke from Jeremiah's neck, broke it, and once again declared that the Lord would deliver Judah and the surrounding nations from Nebuchadnezzar's yoke. Not to be denied, Jeremiah announced that the Lord would place an unbreakable iron yoke upon Judah and the nations. He then announced that Hananiah would die before the year ended, a prophecy that was fulfilled two months later.

During Zedekiah's reign Jeremiah sent a letter to those who had already been taken to Babylon. He encouraged them to settle down there, marry and have children, and pray for the prosperity of their new home. In seventy years the Lord would restore them to the promised land. They were not to believe the deceiving prophets among them who were giving them false hopes of a quick return. Even greater calamity was about to fall on sinful Judah, and those still living in the promised land would be driven among the nations.

Jeremiah condemned two of these prophets by name. Because of their immoral acts and false prophecies, the Lord would deliver them to the Babylonians for execution, probably on charges of rebellion.

Shemaiah, a false prophet in Babylon, sent several letters back to Jerusalem, informing Zephaniah the priest and others of the contents of Jeremiah's letter to the exiles. Calling Jeremiah a madman, Shemaiah urged Zephaniah to imprison the prophet. When informed by the priest of Shemaiah's words, Jeremiah sent another message to the exiles, denouncing Shemaiah as a false prophet and proclaiming that neither he nor his family would participate in the eventual restoration of the exiles.

Hope and Restoration (30:1-33:26). Though dark days were ahead, God would not totally abandon His people. An awful time of frightening judgment would come upon the sin-filled land. Abandoned by its allies and struck down by God, the nation would be like a man with an incurable wound. However, after this time of discipline, God would cure their wound and bring His exiled people back to the land. Exiles from the Northern Kingdom would be reunited with those from Judah, and together they would serve the Lord and His appointed Davidic ruler. The people would increase in numbers and enjoy a renewed relationship with God.

The message of comfort to the exiles continues in chapter 31. Assuring the Northern Kingdom of His everlasting love, the Lord promised to deliver its exiles from their captors. Like a shepherd He would lead them back home and restore their agricultural prosperity and joy. They would come to Jerusalem to worship the Lord and thank Him for His abundant blessings.

Personification highlights 31:15-22. Calling the Northern Kingdom Rachel (the mother of Joseph and grandmother of Ephraim and Manasseh, the two important northern tribes), the Lord exhorted her to cease weeping over her exiled children, for they would someday return to the land. Comparing Ephraim to His son (see v. 9), the Lord declared that He had heard His child's prayer of repentance. Finally, addressing Israel as a young woman (see v. 4), the Lord exhorted her to cease her wandering and carefully observe the road signs guiding her back to the land.

The concluding, riddlelike statement of verse 22 has puzzled interpreters. The woman is undoubtedly Israel, and the man, probably the Lord. Perhaps reference is made to Israel's newfound devotion to the Lord or to its renewed worship around the Lord's throne in Zion (see vv. 4-6,11-13). In that day Judah's devotion to the Lord would also be renewed. The restored exiles would pronounce blessings upon Jerusalem and prosper in their agricultural pursuits.

Chapter 31 culminates with a glorious promise of a new covenant. In days past the Lord had carefully planned and executed the demise of Israel and Judah. In the future He would carefully superintend their restoration. He would forgive their sins and establish a new covenant superior to the Mosaic covenant they had violated. This time God would supernaturally give them the capacity for loyalty that the old covenant had demanded. The Lord took a formal oath that His people would never cease to be a nation or experience His rejection. He promised that Jerusalem would be rebuilt, purified, and never again destroyed.

During the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 587 b.c. Zedekiah, who resented Jeremiah's oracles of doom, imprisoned the prophet in the royal palace. When Jeremiah's cousin Hanamel came to visit him, Jeremiah, as commanded by the Lord, redeemed Hanamel's field in accordance with the ancient law of land redemption (Lev. 25:25-28).

Having completed the transaction, Jeremiah prayed to the Lord. He praised God as the almighty Creator and just Ruler over all. He recalled God's mighty deeds in Israel's history and acknowledged that the present crisis was the result of the nation's sin. Aware that the city would fall to the Babylonians, he asked why God had instructed him to purchase a field. What good would a field be once the land was destroyed and the people exiled?

In response the Lord asked, "Is anything too hard for me?" (Jer. 32:27). Yes, He would allow the Babylonians to conquer the city because of its idolatry. The Lord would someday restore the exiles to the land, transform them into loyal worshipers, establish a new covenant with them, and restore their prosperity. In that day people would again buy and sell fields. Jeremiah's purchase of the field foreshadowed this future restoration.

While confined in the palace, Jeremiah received another encouraging message about the future restoration of the land. Though the Babylonians would reduce Judah to a wasteland and fill Jerusalem with carcasses, the Lord would someday forgive His people's sins, bring them back to the land, and cause Jerusalem to prosper. In fulfillment of His eternal promise to David (2 Sam. 7:12-16), the Lord would raise up an ideal Davidic ruler, who would bring justice and peace to the land. Faithful to His irrevocable covenant with the Levites (Num. 25:12-13), He would establish them as His servants.

Zedekiah's Fate (34:1-22). Despite these glowing promises of restoration, the immediate future remained bleak. During the Babylonian siege Jeremiah warned King Zedekiah that the Babylonians would conquer the city and take the king into exile. The prophet assured Zedekiah that he would die a peaceful, not violent, death and would receive an honorable burial.

Jeremiah also denounced the king's unjust treatment of slaves. During the siege Zedekiah and the citizens of Jerusalem pledged on oath to free all Hebrew slaves. Apparently in some cases this was done as an act of repentance for past failures in this regard (Jer. 34:13-15). However, ulterior motives must have been involved; for when the Babylonians lifted the siege, the slave owners reneged on their covenant and revoked the freedom of those just released. Jeremiah sarcastically declared that the Lord had granted these covenant violators "freedom" from their deceitful ways so that they might perish. When the Lord was through with them, they would be like one of the calves cut in two in a covenant-making ceremony. The Babylonians would return to the city and destroy it.

Jeremiah and the Recabites (35:1-19). During the reign of Jehoiakim, the Lord instructed Jeremiah to invite the Recabite family to the temple and to offer them some wine. The Recabites were the descendants of Jonadab, son of Recab (2 Kgs. 10:15-23), a zealous devotee of the Lord and opponent of Baal worship. Jonadab had commanded his descendants to follow a nomadic and ascetic lifestyle, which included total abstinence from wine. Over two hundred years later his descendants were still observing the regulations their forefather established. When Jeremiah set the wine before them, they refused to drink it, faithful to their ancestor's commands.

The Recabites were an object lesson to Judah and Jerusalem. Their unwavering devotion to their ancestor stood in stark contrast to unfaithful Judah's rejection of the Lord's prophets. Judgment would fall on Judah, but the Lord would preserve Jonadab's godly line.

Judah's Final Days (36:1-45:5). This section opens and closes with material dating from the fourth and fifth years of Jehoiakim's reign. Baruch, Jeremiah's scribe, plays a prominent role in these chapters that frame the section. The intervening chapters relate in chronological order various experiences of the prophet, beginning with his dealings with King Zedekiah and concluding with his messages to the Egyptian exiles following the fall of Jerusalem.

Jehoiakim Burns the Scroll (36:1-32). The Lord instructed Jeremiah to record all of his prophetic messages on a scroll. Jeremiah dictated his messages to the scribe Baruch. Baruch took the scroll to the temple on an official day of fasting and read the prophecies to the people assembled there. When the royal officials heard the reading of the scroll, they told Baruch they must report its contents to the king. After warning Jeremiah and Baruch to go into hiding, they informed the king. As the scroll was read, Jehoiakim cut it up by columns and burned it. He then ordered the arrest of Jeremiah and Baruch, whom by this time the Lord had hidden. The Lord then instructed Jeremiah to dictate another scroll. He also announced that Jehoiakim would be punished severely for his disrespect.

Zedekiah Imprisons Jeremiah (37:1-38:28). During the siege of Jerusalem in 588 b.c. the Babylonians temporarily withdrew from the city to fight an army sent out by Egypt, one of Judah's allies. Jeremiah warned Zedekiah that the city's relief was only temporary. The Babylonians would push back the Egyptians and then destroy Jerusalem. Jeremiah was arrested as a traitor, beaten, and imprisoned for a lengthy period of time in a dungeon. Zedekiah eventually sent for Jeremiah to see if he had any new word from the Lord. Jeremiah repeated his earlier message of judgment, protested his innocence, and asked the king not to send him back to the dungeon. Zedekiah granted his request and sent him to the courtyard of the guard.

While similarities between chapters 37 and 38 might suggest they are parallel accounts of the same events, differences in details make it more likely that chapter 38 records events subsequent to those of chapter 37. While in the courtyard of the guard, Jeremiah continued to proclaim his message of impending judgment. Several royal officials complained to Zedekiah, arguing that Jeremiah should be put to death as a traitor. With the king's approval they lowered the prophet into a muddy cistern, where they intended to let him starve. Ebed-Melech, a palace official, objected to the king, who agreed to let Ebed-Melech rescue Jeremiah from the cistern. Zedekiah again met privately with the prophet. The king expressed his fear that the Babylonians would deliver him over to the hostile pro-Babylonian Jewish party. Jeremiah assured the king that if he surrendered to the Babylonians his life would be preserved. At the same time he warned that resistance would result only in humiliation and ruin. Zedekiah warned Jeremiah to keep their conversation a secret and allowed him to remain in the courtyard of the guard.

Jerusalem's Fall and Jeremiah's Release (39:1-40:6). After a long siege Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in 586 b.c. Zedekiah ran for his life, but the Babylonians captured him near Jericho and brought him to Nebuchadnezzar. Before the king's eyes the Babylonians executed his sons and the nobles of Judah. They then put Zedekiah's eyes out and took him to Babylon. The Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and carried most of the population away into exile, leaving only the poor behind.

In the midst of this disaster, Jeremiah was not forgotten. By royal order Nebuzaradan, one of Nebuchadnezzar's high-ranking officials, released Jeremiah from the courtyard of the guard and turned him over to Gedaliah.

Details of the prophet's release follow a brief parenthesis indicating that Ebed-Melech was spared (see 38:7-13). After his initial release Jeremiah somehow got mixed in with those being taken into exile. Nebuzaradan freed him and gave him the option to go to Babylon or stay in the land. Jeremiah decided on the latter and returned to Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor.

Turmoil in the Land (40:7-41:15). During the Babylonian invasion some of the soldiers and men of Judah had man-aged to avoid capture. They came to Gedaliah, who promised them safety and encouraged them to return to their agricultural pursuits and serve the king of Babylon. Judean refugees from the surrounding countries returned as well and resumed life in their homeland.

However, all was not well. One of the army officers, Johanon son of Kareah, informed Gedaliah that the king of the Ammonites, who was anti-Babylonian in sentiment (see 27:3; Ezek. 21:18-32), wanted the governor dead and had already sent another of Judah's army officers, Ishmael son of Nethaniah, to do the job. Gedaliah refused to believe this report and declined Johanon's offer to kill Ishmael.

Sometime later (41:1 gives the month, but not the year), Ishmael and ten other men visited Gedaliah in Mizpah. During a meal they suddenly arose and killed Gedaliah, as well as the Judeans and Babylonian soldiers who were present. The next day eighty men passed by on their way to Jerusalem to mourn over the temple and present offerings at its ruins. Ishmael enticed them into the city, where he then slaughtered seventy of the eighty (the ten who were spared promised him provisions) and threw their bodies into a cistern. Taking the residents of Mizpah as hostages, he set out for Ammon. When Johanon heard the news, he and his men pursued Ishmael and overtook him in Gibeon. The hostages were rescued, but Ishmael and eight of his men escaped.

Jeremiah's Message to the Survivors (41:16-43:7). Fearing reprisal from the Babylonians for the death of Gedaliah, Johanon and the people of Mizpah started toward Egypt. However, before leaving the land, they asked Jeremiah to seek the Lord's will on their behalf and promised to obey His directions. After inquiring of the Lord, Jeremiah told them to stay in the land and promised that God would cause the Babylonian king to treat them mercifully. He warned that if they disobeyed and fled to Egypt, disaster would overtake them. Jeremiah's warning fell on deaf ears. Johanon and others accused him of collaborating with Baruch in an effort to hand them over to the Babylonians for punishment. With flagrant disregard for the Lord's command, the group fled to Egypt, taking Jeremiah and Baruch with them.

Jeremiah in Egypt (43:8-44:30). Jeremiah's exile to Egypt certainly did not bring his prophetic ministry to an end. At Tahpanhes, the site of an Egyptian royal residence in the eastern delta, the Lord instructed Jeremiah to announce the coming fall of Egypt to the Babylonians. The prophet took some large stones and buried them in clay in the brick pavement at the entrance to the palace. He then proclaimed that Nebuchadnezzar would someday erect a throne over the stones. The Babylonian king would devastate Egypt and its temples. The Lord would prove to the Judean refugees that He, not Egypt, was their only source of strength and protection.

Chapter 44 records another of Jeremiah's Egyptian messages. Addressing all of the Judean exiles living in Egypt, the prophet reminded them that God's judgment upon Jerusalem was due to the people's idolatry. Their persistence in worshiping idol-gods would only lead to a further outpouring of God's angry judgment.

The people responded to Jeremiah's warning with hostility. They declared that they would continue to sacrifice to the "Queen of Heaven," the Babylonian goddess Ishtar. They thought disaster had only come upon Judah because Josiah purged the land of foreign gods (2 Kgs. 23).

Jeremiah attempted to correct their faulty reasoning, pointing out that it was idolatry that had brought God's wrath upon the nation. In the face of such obstinacy Jeremiah announced that divine judgment would overtake them in Egypt. As a sign of coming disaster, he prophesied the downfall of Pharaoh Hophra. This prophecy was fulfilled a few years later, in 570 b.c., when Hophra was overthrown by a rival Egyptian party.

Jeremiah Encourages Baruch (45:1-5). This brief message, which dates to Jehoiakim's fourth year (605 b.c.) and concerns the scribe Baruch, rounds off chapters 36-45. These words were spoken to Baruch after he recorded Jeremiah's prophecies on a scroll (see 36:1-7). Jeremiah told Baruch not to covet a high position, for judgment would surely come upon the land. Yet Baruch could be assured that the Lord would protect him through the disaster.

Judgment on Various Nations (46:1-51:51). These oracles of judgment develop the message of chapter 25. Together with chapter 25 they form a frame around this section of the book.

Judgment on Egypt (46:1-28). In 605 b.c. one of the major battles of ancient history took place at Carchemish, located on the Euphrates River in Syria. The Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Egyptians under Necho and thereby established themselves as the major power in the Near East. On the occasion of this battle, Jeremiah proclaimed an oracle against Egypt. In dramatic fashion he imitated the commands of the Egyptian officers as they prepared their troops for battle. He then described the Egyptians' retreat and downfall. Though the Egyptians marched into battle with chariots and weapons, they were doomed to defeat, for the Lord was fighting with the Babylonians.

Chapter 46 also includes a prophecy of the Babylonian invasion of Egypt, which took place in 568-567 b.c. The Egyptian army would scatter before the swarming northern invaders. The Egyptians would be as helpless as trees of a forest before the axes of woodsmen. Pharaoh and the gods of Egypt, including even their chief deity Amon, would be unable to resist the Lord's judgment.

The chapter concludes with an encouraging message for God's people. Once their time of punishment was over, the Lord would deliver them from exile and restore them to their land.

Judgment on the Philistines (47:1-7). Divine judgment would also fall on the Philistines. The approach of the Babylonians from the north would cause consternation throughout Philistia. The enemy would sweep through the land, bringing death and destruction. This oracle was fulfilled in 604 b.c. when Nebuchadnezzar overran Philistia and conquered Ashkelon.

Judgment on Moab (48:1-47). This lengthy oracle portrays the downfall of Moab, which apparently took place in 582 b.c. at the hands of the Babylonians. This chapter is filled with Moabite place names and vivid imagery. The destruction of their land would cause the Moabites to weep bitterly and flee in panic. In the past Moab had been relatively secure, like wine that had been allowed to settle in one jar. All that was about to change. Moab would be poured out of the jar. Moab's military might would be shattered, causing its pride and joy to be replaced by humiliation and lamentation. Its demise was inescapable. Its people and their chief god Chemosh would be carried into exile. A brief concluding statement promised Moab eventual restoration.

Judgment on Ammon (49:1-6). Ammon, another of the Trans-Jordanian states, would also experience judgment. The Ammonites were proud of their agricultural prosperity and wealth, but the Lord would bring disaster upon their land. They and their god Milcom (compare NIV "Molech") would go into exile. As in the case of Moab (see 48:47), Ammon was promised eventual restoration.

Judgment on Edom (49:7-22). This oracle, which parallels the Book of Obadiah, threatens Edom with thorough and final destruction. Edom was proud of its wisdom and secure position. Since God's own people were not immune from punishment, then certainly the Edomites would not be spared. Like Sodom and Gomorrah, Edom would become a prime example of devastation and ruin. The Lord would come against them like a lion attacking a helpless flock of sheep.

Judgment on Damascus (49:23-27). Damascus, an important city in Syria, would also experience judgment. Arpad and Hamath, two city-states located in northern Syria, are portrayed as being troubled over the news of the fall of Damascus. The strong warriors of Damascus would fall in the streets as the city went up in smoke.

Judgment on Kedar and Hazor (49:28-33). Nebuchadnezzar, the Lord's instrument of judgment against nations, would also attack the Arabian tribes located east of Palestine, two of which are specifically named here (the precise location of Hazor is unknown). This prophecy came to pass in 599-598 b.c.

Judgment on Elam (49:34-39). The Lord would also judge the distant land of Elam, located east of Babylon. He would shatter Elam's military might and scatter its people among the nations. As in some of the preceding oracles, an encouraging word concludes the oracle (see 46:26; 48:47; 49:6).

Judgment on Babylon (50:1-51:64). Though the Lord would use Babylon to punish many nations, He would eventually judge this mighty empire as well. In these two lengthy chapters Babylon's downfall is described in detail.

A mighty nation from the north would capture Babylon. The Medo-Per-sians conquered the Babylonian empire in 539 b.c. The Babylonians' idol-gods, the chief of which was Marduk, would be unable to rescue the city.

Babylon's demise would be good news for God's people. He had sent them into exile for their sins, but now they would be able to leave Babylon, return to Jerusalem, and enjoy a renewed covenantal relationship with God. Babylon's and Israel's relative positions would be reversed. Like the Assyrians before them, Babylon had mistreated and oppressed God's people. Now the time of reckoning had come. The Lord would overthrow Babylon and regather His scattered people to their land. He would restore Israel's blessings and forgive their sins.

Babylon's fall is vividly portrayed as dramatic calls to battle alternate with descriptions of the city's defeat. The Lord would vindicate His oppressed people before the arrogant Babylonians. Using the invincible northern army as His instrument, the Lord would destroy everything in which Babylon took pride—its civil and religious leaders, warriors, armaments, and wealth. The city would become like Sodom and Gomorrah. (As in Isa. 13-14, the problem of harmonizing this portrayal of Babylon's fall with the Persian conquest of 539 b.c. is difficult. See comments there.) Again employing the imagery of a lion ravaging a flock of sheep (see 50:44-45 with 49:19-20), the Lord declared that the judgment of Babylon would demonstrate He was a God without equal.

The description of Babylon's fall continues in chapter 51. Once more the Lord's vengeance is a major theme. He would vindicate His people before their oppressor, demonstrating His sovereignty over the affairs of individuals and nations. The Lord is the Creator of the universe, who is infinitely superior to the idol gods.

The Babylonians would be unable to stand before the northern army raised up by the Lord. Babylon would be trampled like a threshing floor at harvest time and be reduced to ruins. In response to His people's prayer for revenge, the Lord announced that the Babylonians would reel like drunkards and be slaughtered like sheep. He would humiliate Babylon and its idols, just as the Babylonians had shamed the Lord's people and dwelling place. Before the Lord's retributive judgment all the wisdom, pomp, and might of Babylon would prove futile.

Having recorded his prophecy against Babylon on a scroll, Jeremiah commissioned Seraiah, an officer of King Zedekiah, who was about to travel to Babylon, to proclaim the message when he arrived there. He instructed Seraiah to offer a brief prayer and to drop the scroll into the Euphrates River as an illustration of Babylon's eventual downfall.

Historical Epilogue (52:1-34)

This chapter is parallel to 2 Kings 24:18-25:30 (see commentary there). The statistical information given in Jeremiah 52:28-30 does not appear in 2 Kings 25, and the account of Gedaliah's death (see 2 Kgs. 25:22-26) is omitted in Jeremiah 52. The chapter gives a detailed account of Jerusalem's fall to the Babylonians. It is probably included to authenticate Jeremiah's message by showing that his prophecies of judgment were fulfilled.

Theological Significance. Jeremiah shows prophecy in full flesh and blood. He wanted to identify with his people and live a normal life. Instead he had to preach against his people and confront other prophets and then ask God, "Why?" Through the prophet's humanity, God spoke to Judah and the nations during Israel's greatest crisis. God showed that obedience, justice, and piety pleased Him and ensured the nation's future. Theological and worship tradition ensured nothing. God could change political sides to discipline His covenant people and then lead them back to Him. Nebuchadnezzar succeeded in conquering Jerusalem because he was God's agent of judgment on His sinful people. In the end, however, the nations in their arrogance would face God's wrath, while Israel would be a people of a new, heartfelt covenant.

Jeremiah affirmed that God's ultimate plan was to bless His people (29:11). God's plans, however, are conditional on human response (18:7-10). Persistent rebellion can bring punishment when God had promised blessing. Repentance can avert disaster when God had promised judgment.

Jeremiah affirms the faithlessness of God's people and their need for God to intervene to save them. Jeremiah anticipates a time when God would write a new covenant on His people's hearts, when God would be known in intimate fellowship, when God would no longer remember their sins (31:31-34). Jeremiah's hopes find fulfillment in the new relationship with God made possible through Christ's death (Heb. 10:12-22).

Questions for Reflection

1. How did Jeremiah portray God? What roles and characteristics did the prophet attribute to God?
2. Why was God displeased with Judah? Is the modern church like Judah in any ways?
3. In what ways does Jeremiah serve as an example for God's people? What were his strengths? weaknesses?
4. How did Jeremiah characterize the false prophets of his day? How did they differ from Jeremiah? How can modern Christians identify false teachers?

Sources for Additional Study

Harrison, Roland K. Jeremiah and Lamentations. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1973.

Huey, F. B., Jr. Jeremiah, Lamentations. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1993.

Skinner, John. Prophecy and Religion: Studies in the Life of Jeremiah. Cambridge: University Press, 1922.

Thompson, J. A. The Book of Jeremiah. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.