Leviticus

Leviticus

The name Leviticus comes from the ancient Greek translation, the Septuagint, which titled the composition Leueitikon, that is, [The Book of the] Levites. The Levites are not, however, the major characters of this book. The title rather points to the book as useful to the Levites in their ministry as worship leaders and teachers of morals.

The last verse of Leviticus sets the book in its scriptural context: "These are the commands the Lord gave Moses on Mount Sinai for the Israelites" (27:34). An expanded translation makes that context clearer: "These are the commands [covenant obligations] the Lord [Yahweh, the covenant God] gave Moses [the covenant mediator] on Mount Sinai [the covenant place] for Israel [the covenant people]."

First, Leviticus cannot be understood apart from God's purpose for His covenant people. In the account of Moses' struggle with Pharaoh in Exod. 4-12, God repeatedly called for the freedom of Israel to worship Him (4:23; 7:16; 8:1; 9:1; 10:3; 12:31). In a real sense the exodus deliverance was incomplete until Israel began the worship of God at Sinai (Exod. 3:12), thus fulfilling God's goal for the exodus. Israel was set free from Egyptian slavery and brought into a new, covenant relationship with God precisely so that they might be free to worship.

Second, Leviticus cannot be understood apart from God's desire to be with His covenant people. But because a Holy God cannot condone sin, Israel's experiment in idolatry with the golden calf (Exod. 32) presented God with a dilemma. Twice God warned the Israelites: "You are a stiffnecked people. If I were to go with you even for a moment, I might destroy you" (Exod. 33:5; also see 33:3). How could a holy God continue to go with a disobedient and rebellious people? Exodus 34-40 and the Book of Leviticus answer that question.

Theme. The overall burden of the Book of Leviticus was to communicate the awesome holiness of Israel's God and to outline the means by which the people could have access to Him. This is in line with the great central covenant theme of the Pentateuch, a theme that describes the relationship between the Lord and Israel as one of Great King and vassal (servant) people. Just as a servant had to follow proper protocol to approach the king, so Israel had to recognize its own unworthiness to enter the sacred precincts of God's dwelling place. The gulf between the people and their God could be bridged only by their confession of their unworthiness and their heartfelt adherence to the rites and ceremonies prescribed by Him as a precondition to fellowship.

Literary Forms. With the exception of a few narrative passages (Lev. 8-10) and a blessing and curse section (Lev. 26), Leviticus consists of legal material, particularly of a cultic (or ceremonial) nature. Much of this legal material is highly structured in an almost poetic form (Lev. 1-7 and to a lesser extent Lev. 11-15). The final part of Leviticus (chaps. 17-26) is a looser collection of legal material known as the "Holiness Code," an appropriate term given the prevailing notion of holiness there.

The legal form of most of Leviticus (prescriptions and statutes) suggests that it is part of a covenant text. In fact, it deals with the covenant requirements that regulate the means by which the nation and individual Israelites could enter into and maintain a proper relationship with the Lord God. In this sense Leviticus, like much of Exodus, is a body of covenant stipulations designed to help close the gap between God's holiness and humanity's sin.

1. Need for Sacrifice (1:1-7:38)
2. Need for Mediators (8:1-10:20)
3. Need for Separation (11:1-15:33)
4. Need Atonement (16:1-34)
5. Need for Holy Living (17:1-25:55)
6. Blessing and Curse (26:1-46)
7. Dedication Offerings (27:1-34)

Purpose and Theology. Israel was "a holy nation," that is, a nation set apart to be God's special people. As such, Israel was called on to accomplish a special mission for God on the earth by virtue of His saving act. (See Lev. 22:32-33: "I am the Lord, who makes you holy and who brought you out of Egypt to be your God.") Having accepted this covenant role at Sinai, Israel became God's vassal, the mediator of His saving grace to all the nations of the earth. (See "Purpose and Theology" in the Exodus commentary.) Israel's inability to abide by the requirements of God's covenant, however, threatened its status as "a holy nation."

To be a holy nation Israel had to have a means whereby that holiness—or sep-aratedness—could be maintained. Israel needed a set of guidelines stipulating every aspect of that relationship between the nation and its God. God's people had to learn the relationship of holiness as a position and holiness as a condition. As a position holiness means the setting apart of a person, object, or institution for the use of a god. It has no necessary ethical or moral corollary; Israel's pagan neighbors set apart "holy" prostitutes for the service of their gods. Israel set apart a holy place (the tabernacle), rituals (the sacrifices), persons (the priests), and times (the Sabbath, the feasts, the Sabbatical and Jubilee Years). Whatever has not been designated as holy is common or profane. As a condition holiness comes to embody moral purity and righteousness. God's own personal holiness entails not only His remoteness and uniqueness but also His moral perfection. Persons and things that He sanctifies and declares holy must also exhibit moral uprightness. The Holiness Code of Leviticus 17-25 stresses holiness as a moral condition.

Leviticus outlines how Israel could offer God appropriate homage to cultivate and maintain the relationship brought about by mutual commitment to covenant. Because Israel was unable to live up to its covenant commitments, they could not approach the holy God. Only God could provide a system to purify the sinful people and their worship place so that they could appear before and serve the Holy One. These sacrifices rendered a person righteous who by faith accepted the atoning benefits of the sacrifices. God also provided a system of offerings for a person to express proper understanding of and thanksgiving for the benefits of His grace. The holy people also had to be taught about and continually reminded of the strict lines that separate the holy from the profane by seeing examples of these differences in everyday life.

A thing was holy or unholy only as the sovereign God declared it to be such in line with His own inscrutable criteria and His own inherent holiness. In His sovereignty God listed unclean animals, separating them from the clean ones. He described certain diseases and certain fungi and other phenomena as unclean. Those who came in contact with the unclean became unclean as well. Even bodily secretions were unclean, their appearance being sufficient to mark the individual so affected as unholy.

The apparently arbitrary nature of the categories of clean and unclean makes it clear that holiness is essentially a matter of divine discretion. The sovereign God made these distinctions for educational purposes. Israel as a people separated from all other peoples had to learn from everyday and commonplace examples that God sits in sovereign judgment over all things. They had to learn that He alone reserves judgment about whether or not a person, object, or condition con-forms to His definition of holiness. Only in this way could Israel understand what its own holiness was all about and how that holiness was essential if it were to live out the purposes for which it was elected and redeemed.

If Israel was called on to be holy, it was all the more necessary for the priests, who in a sense were the "mediators of the mediators," to be holy before God. The nation with its individuals had access to the Lord but in a limited way. Only through the priests was perfect access achieved. Clearly the priests had to measure up to unusual standards of holiness. Leviticus therefore addresses the matter of the consecration and instruction of the priests as well.

Finally, the sovereign God ordained not only principles of access by which His servant people might approach Him, but He also designated special times and places. Thus Leviticus, like Exodus, instructs the covenant community to meet the Lord as a community at the tabernacle, the central sanctuary that He invested with His glory as a visible sign of His habitation among them. He could not be approached randomly or whimsically. No king holds audience at the discretion of his subjects. Rather, the king establishes regular times of assembly with his people when he receives their tribute and addresses their concerns. Likewise, the Lord revealed a calendar of ritual, a schedule according to which the community as such could (and should) appear before Him to praise Him and to seek His face on their behalf. Sabbaths, new moons, and festival days were therefore set aside for the regular encounter of the servant nation with its sovereign God. Times and places were not irrelevant, as Leviticus makes clear. In a covenant context they attested to the rule of the Lord among His people and to their need to come where and when He decreed for them to do so.

Need for Sacrifice (1-7)

The first major section of Leviticus (chaps. 1-7) deals with the nature, purpose, and ritual of sacrifice. The summary statement that concludes this section sets the entire sacrificial system in the context of God's covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai. God freed Israel from Egyptian slavery so that it would be free to worship. Leviticus 1-7 instructed Israel in how properly to worship God. God desires the fellowship of His people. The Israelites' rebellion, however, made continued relations a problem for a holy God. Leviticus 1-7 introduces those sacrifices that made possible renewed fellowship between God and His people. (See "Purpose and Theology.")

As an expression of tribute and devotion to the Lord, sacrifice had to be offered with a willing heart but also according to clearly articulated and well-understood prescriptions. Different kinds of offerings served a variety of purposes. Therefore an elaborate manual of procedure was necessary to show God's people how to approach the Lord God in an appropriate manner.

Burnt Offering (1:1-17). The burnt offering could consist of an animal of the herd or flock or even of a bird. "Burnt offering" ( olah) suggests that the victim was totally consumed on the altar; that is, everything was given to the Lord, and nothing remained for either the offerer or the priest. The purpose was to provide atonement for the offerer. By laying a hand on the head of the animal, the offerer was recognizing the substitutionary role of the victim. The animal was, in effect, paying the price of the offerer's sin. Whether bull, sheep, or dove, the animal's death became a "soothing aroma" before God, a means of effecting a harmonious relationship between a person and God.

Grain Offering (2:1-16). The grain offering appears always to have followed the burnt offering (Num. 28:1-8) and consisted of flour and oil. Though it too provided a "soothing aroma," it was not totally consumed in fire but was shared with the priests. Thus its purpose was not so much to secure atonement. But as its name ( minhah, that is, gift, tribute) and the use of salt imply, it attested to the covenant relationship (re)established by atonement. That is, the grain offering was a harvest tribute paid to the sovereign Lord.

Peace Offering (3:1-17). The peace offering could be an animal of the herd, a lamb, or a goat. The purpose was, like the grain offering, not to effect atonement but to celebrate covenant union. It produced a soothing aroma, thereby attesting to God's pleasure with the offerer. So much was this the case that the peace offering actually was viewed as a common meal in which the Lord, the offerer, and the priests "sat down" together to share their respective parts; (see further 7:15-18,28-34).

CHART: SACRIFICIAL SYSTEM
NAME	REFERENCE	ELEMENTS	SIGNIFICANCE
Burnt Offering	Lev 1; 6:8-13	Bull, ram, male goat, male dove, or young pigeon without blemish. (Always male animals, but species of animal varied according to individual's economic status.)	Voluntary. Signifies propitiation for sin and complete surrender, devotion, and commitment to God.
Grain Offering Also called Meal, or Tribute, Offering	Lev 2; 6:14-23	Flour, bread, or grain made with olive oil and salt (always unleavened); or incense.	Voluntary. Signifies thanksgiving for firstfruits.
Fellowship Offering Also called Peace Offering: includes (1) Thank Offering, (2) Vow Offering, and (3) Freewill Offering	Lev 3; 7:11-36	Any animal without blemish. (Species of animal varied according to individual's economic status.)	Voluntary. Symbolizes fellowship with God. (1) Signifies thankfulness for a specific blessing; (2) offers a ritual expression of a vow; and (3) symbolizes general thankfulness (to be brought to one of three required religious services).
Sin Offering	Lev 4:1-5:13; 6:24-30; 12:6-8	Male or female animal without blemish—as follows: bull for high priest and congregation; male goat for king; female goat or lamb for common person; dove or pigeon for slightly poor; tenth of an ephah of flour for the very poor.	Mandatory. Made by one who had sinned unintentionally or was unclean in order to attain purification.
Guilt Offering	Lev 5:14-6:7; 7:1-6; 14:12-18	Ram or lamb without blemish	Mandatory. Made by a person who had either deprived another of his rights or had desecrated something holy.

Sin Offering (4:1-5:13). Peace or fellowship between a human being and God could not be achieved as long as sin created a barrier between them, so means had to be found to deal with that problem. Sin could be either unintentional or by choice. The rituals of Leviticus provided atonement only for unintentional sin. The person who sinned by choice ("sin defiantly," NIV; Hebrew "sin with a high hand") was forever cut off from God's people (Num. 15:30; see Ps. 19:13).

The removal of unintentional sin required appropriate sacrifices. These included not only the bull and lamb (here the female, 4:32) but also the goat, dove, or even flour. The nature of the offering depended on the status of the offerer.

Thus the sin of the priest required the bull, the blood of which was sprinkled within the holy place of the tabernacle. The purification of the congregation as a whole also demanded a bull whose blood was applied by the priest in the way just described. The inadvertent sin of a ruler was atoned by the sacrifice of a male goat, the blood being applied to the great altar. An ordinary person presented a female goat or lamb or even, if poor, two doves or a mere handful of flour. When all of this was done with proper ritual and intent, the sin would be forgiven.

Trespass Offering (5:14-6:7). Atonement for either sins of inadvertence (4:1-35) or sins of omission (5:1-13) had to be followed by appropriate compensation to the one sinned against. The trespass offering was always a ram without blemish. If the offerer had withheld anything from the sanctuary, perhaps a promised offering, a 20 percent penalty had to be added to the offering. If the sin involved the loss or destruction of another's property, the guilty party had to offer a perfect ram and again make restitution of 120 percent. Reparation was expected; for though forgiveness comes by grace, sin always produces damaging consequences, particularly in terms of loss to fellow human beings.

Priests and Offerings (6:8-7:38). Leviticus 6:8-7:36 is a brief "handbook for priests" to instruct these worship leaders in the proper ritual for sacrifices and offerings. Its order of contents con-forms largely to that of the sacrifices just outlined.

The law of the burnt offering required that the fire of the altar be kept burning day and night. The continual fire points to the continuing need for sacrifice to atone for the people's sins. The law of the grain offering and sin offerings repeat the earlier instruction (chaps. 2; 4) but from the priests' perspective. The priestly role in the guilt offering and peace offerings specifies in greater detail what portion of the offerings was the priests' share.

Leviticus 7:37-38 summarizes the entire system of sacrifices and sets that system in the context of the Mosaic covenant at Mount Sinai. (See the introduction.)

Need for Mediators (8-10)

Moses' role as mediator on behalf of rebellious Israel (Exod. 32:30-32; 33:12-17; 34:8-9) points to the need for God-ordained mediators to continue his ministry of intercession throughout Israel's history. Exodus 28-29 specifies that these mediators will be the priests. The second major part of Leviticus—chapters 8-10—describes the establishment of the priesthood in answer to this need.

Consecration of Priests (8:1-36). Moses called for all the congregation to assemble at the front of the tabernacle where they would witness the consecration of Aaron and his sons to the priesthood. Their adornment by the clothing and other trappings gave them identity and symbolically spoke of the meaning and function of their office (9:6-9; see Exod. 28). They were then anointed. And on their behalf Moses offered up a sin offering, a burnt offering, and an offering of consecration that symbolized the total commitment of Aaron and his sons to the priestly ministry. Then, as with all peace offerings, they ate of the ram of consecration during a seven-day period of purification.

Function of Priests (9:1-24). Once Aaron and his sons had been duly set apart, they could and did offer sacrifice, a matter that occupies Leviticus 9. The purpose of these first sacrifices was to effect oneness between God and His people. The great variety of offerings, for both priests and people, attests to the significance of this particular day. The day was to mark the appearance of the Lord among them, an appearance that required their total commitment and purity.

Failure of Priests (10:1-20). That the ritual of priestly function and sacrifice must be performed precisely according to divine prescription is highlighted in Leviticus 10. Failure to do so met with most severe judgment. Two of Aaron's sons, Nadab and Abihu, offered "unauthorized fire" before the Lord on the altar of incense. The "unauthorized fire" may have been fire like that used in foreign worship. What is clear is that violation of God's demand to be glorified invited His swift retribution. Aaron and his two surviving sons had to remain in the tabernacle to complete the offerings described in chapter 9. Their failure to eat of these parts of the animals to which they were entitled brought Moses' displeasure. Upon hearing Aaron's explanation—that he was afraid of further offending the Lord—Moses understood and relented.

Need for Separation (11-15)

God had called Israel to be a people separated for service (Exod. 19:5-6). Israel was, however, constantly tempted to conform to the standards of its neighbors in Egypt and Canaan (Lev. 18:3). The laws of clean and unclean witness the "separateness" of Israel and remind God's people that there can be no compromise of His standards. The Lord had charged Aaron directly to distinguish between the holy and the profane (10:10). Leviticus 11-15 provides examples.

Clean /Unclean Animals (11:1-47). The first of these examples was in the area of animal life, for not all were fit for human consumption. Though hygienic principles may be indirectly involved, the major lesson to be learned here was that because God is holy His people must also be holy. Their holiness or separateness was to be illustrated by their distinctive eating habits.

Uncleanness after Childbirth (12:1-8). The second example of the distinction between ritual cleanness and impurity is seen in the uncleanness associated with childbirth. Comparison with the similar legislation in chapter 15 clarifies that impurity stems from bodily discharges associated with birth and not the act or fact of birth itself. Why discharges or emissions are unclean is not so clear. Many scholars have proposed that the loss of bodily fluids, especially blood, may signify the onset of death itself, the ultimate uncleanness.

Uncleanness of Disease (13:1-14:57). Leviticus 13-14 deals with the manifestations of "infectious skin disease" and "mildew" on the body, clothing, or even houses of the afflicted, considering it as a sign of uncleanness. Of all the diseases of the Bible none is deemed more serious or loathsome than those often (though imprecisely) called leprosy. The many symptoms and prescriptions for cure listed indicate a variety of different afflictions. Their cleansing after healing had occurred required the offering of appropriate sacrifices. Similarly, clothing contaminated by such diseases also had to be treated either by washing or, if that failed, by burning. Houses polluted by disease would manifest it by mildew, a condition that had to be remedied by repairing the affected parts of the house or even tearing it down.

Unclean Emissions (15:1-33). The final kind of uncleanness dealt with in Leviticus concerns abnormal male emissions by disease, the release of semen, menstrual flow, and other kinds of female discharge of blood. These all were not inherently unclean. But they symbolize impurity and must therefore be cleansed by appropriate ritual and sacrifice in order that the holiness of God's people might be asserted and maintained.

Need for Atonement (16)

The greatest act of purification—one involving the entire nation—was that achieved on the Day of Atonement. On this day the high priest first offered up sacrifice for himself. He then slaughtered one goat as a sin offering for all the people and expelled another goat (the scapegoat) from the camp as a symbol of the removal of sin from the community. Following a whole burnt offering, the camp was purified of the blood and animal remains by ceremonies of bathing and burning outside the camp. The writer of Hebrews developed images from the Day of Atonement to stress the superiority of Christ's priesthood (Heb. 8:6; 9:7,11-26). Hebrews 13:11-12 uses the picture of the bull and goat burned outside the camp as an illustration of Christ's suffering outside the Jerusalem city walls. According to one interpretation of 2 Corinthians 5:21, Paul alluded to the ritual of the Day of Atonement by speaking of Christ as a sin offering.

Need for Holy Living (17-25)

The longest section of Leviticus (chaps. 17-25) is sometimes called the "Holiness Code" because it contains an exhaustive list of miscellaneous regulations pertaining to the acquisition and maintenance of holiness in Israel. The previous sections of Leviticus have been concerned primarily with holiness as "position." In chapters 17-25 (especially chap. 19) the focus shifts to holiness as moral condition. These miscellaneous laws may be categorized under eight major headings.

Sacrifice and Blood (17:1-16). Because blood was tantamount to life itself and was the God-ordained means of effecting atonement, no animal could be slaughtered outside the tabernacle. In the ancient Near East there was no such thing as ordinary slaughter for meat. For Israel to slaughter meat outside the tabernacle precincts was to shed blood to alien territory and perhaps to alien gods. The Christians of Corinth faced a similar problem regarding meat slaughtered in a pagan context (1 Cor. 8; 10:14-33).

As a metaphor for life, blood was sacrosanct and could not be eaten. This pertained not only to animals offered in sacrifice but to wild game and other edible animals as well.

Sexual Relationships (18:1-30). Strict standards of holiness also had to be observed in the area of sexual relationships. Contrary to the practices of the pagan world, the people of the Lord had to marry among their own society but not incestuously. Thus a man could not marry his mother, stepmother, sister or half-sister, granddaughter, stepsister, blood aunt, uncle's wife, daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, stepdaughter, or step-granddaughter. Likewise, adultery, child sacrifice, homosexuality, and bestiality were strictly prohibited.

Interpersonal Relationships (19:1-37). The holiness of God meant that the Israelites had to display holiness in their interpersonal relationships. The frequent echoes of the Ten Commandments (worship the one God, honor parents, keep the Sabbath, 19:3; the prohibitions against stealing, lying, and false swearing, serve as reminders that a lifestyle of holiness was a condition of God's covenant with Israel. Again and again God's people were reminded that moral behavior is not optional for those who call Yahweh Lord. The conduct required of God's people went beyond ritual matters to include providing for the poor, caring for the disadvantaged, practicing justice, loving one's neighbor, respecting the aged, caring for foreigners, and dealing fairly in business and trade. The memory of God's mighty acts in delivering Israel from Egyptian slavery was to motivate God's people to lives of compassion and justice. An appreciation of the holiness of God and the memory of what God has done for our deliver-ance—not from Egyptian slavery but from sin through Christ's death—con-tinue to motivate Christians to holy living. It is thus not surprising that New Testament writers often echo the ethical teaching of Leviticus 19 (for example, Matt. 22:39; Rom. 13:9; Gal. 5:14; Jas. 2:8).

CHART: JEWISH FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
NAME	MONTH: DATE	REFERENCE	SIGNIFICANCE
Passover	Nisan (Mar./Apr.): 14-21	Exod 12:2-20; Lev 23:5	Commemorates God's deliverence of Israel out of Egypt.
Feast of Unleavened Bread	Nisan (Mar./Apr.): 15-21	Lev 23:6-8	Commemorates God's deliverence of Israel out of Egypt. Includes a Day of Firstfruits for the barley harvest.
Feast of Weeks, or Harvest (Pentecost)	Sivan (May/June): 6 (seven weeks after Passover)	Exod 23:16; 34:22; Lev 23:15-21	Commemorates the giving of the law at Mount Sinai. Includes a Day of Firstfruits for the wheat harvest.
Feast of Trumpets (Rosh Hashanah)	Tishri (Sept./Oct.): 1	Lev 23:23-25 Num 29:1-6	Day of the blowing of the trumpets to signal the beginning of the civil new year.
Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)	Tishri (Sept./Oct.): 10	Lev 23:26-32; Exod 30:10	On this day the high priest makes atonement for the nation's sin. Also a day of fasting.
Feast of Booths, or Tabernacles (Sukkot)	Tishri (Sept./Oct.): 15-21	Lev 23:33-43; Num 29:12-39; Deut 16:13	Commemorates the forty years of wilderness wandering.
Feast of Dedication, or Festival of Lights (Hanukkah)	Kislev (Nov./Dec.): 25-30; and Tebeth (Dec./Jan.): 1-2	John 10:22	Commemorates the purification of the temple by Judas Maccabaeus in 164 B.C.
Feast of Purim, or Esther	Adar (Feb./Mar.): 14	Esth 9	Commemorates the deliverance of the Jewish people in the days of Esther.

Capital Offenses (20:1-27). The laws concerning capital offenses have to be understood against the backdrop of paganism. Capital crimes tended to obliterate the differences between God's holy people and the world at large. Thus the worship of Molech, the god of the Ammonites, was punishable by death. So were other heathen religious practices, cursing of one's parents, and incest and other sexual deviations. Again, Israel was a separated people whose lifestyle was to reflect that separation for service to a holy God.

Worship and Holiness (21:1-22:33). Obviously holiness had to pervade Israel's religious life, so detailed injunctions regulated the priesthood and the eating of sacrificial offerings. The ordinary priests and the high priest had to follow strict guidelines in regard to mourning rites and marriage. They had to adhere to strict criteria of physical perfection to qualify for service. This requirement suggests that inward holiness must have outward, physical expression.

The priests had to be ceremonially clean before partaking of sacrifices. Then they and their families could enjoy their meal together as they took the portions to which they were entitled. All animals devoted in sacrifice had to be perfect specimens, for to offer Yahweh anything but the best would profane His holy name (see Mal. 1:6-8).

Holy Days (23:1-44). For the ancient Israelite holy living entailed the proper observance of holy days. These include the Sabbath, Passover and Unleavened Bread, Firstfruits, and the Feast of Weeks (or Pentecost). The fall festivals also were observed, which consisted of the Feast of Trumpets or New Year's Day, the Day of Atonement or Yom Kippur, and the Feast of Tabernacles or Booths, a reminder of Israel's wilderness experience. (See the feature article "Israel's Festivals and Feasts.")

Consecration and Desecration (24:1-23). God provided proper protocol in the administering of the affairs of the tabernacle. But He demanded punishment for violation of divine holiness, a point clearly made in the narrative about the blasphemer. This incident gave rise to related cases that directly or indirectly impinged upon the character of God and the requirements mandated to a people who claimed allegiance to Him.

Sabbatical and Jubilee Years (25:1-55). The proper observance of Sabbatical and Jubilee years was to testify to Israel's status as a holy people. The land, like the people, had to have rest; so every seventh year was set aside as a year when nothing would be planted. Then after seven such cycles, the fiftieth year too would be set apart for the rejuvenation of the land, the forgiveness of mort-gages on it, and the like. The redemption of property was to remind the people that the land was Yahweh's and was actually leased out by Him to them. Likewise, those who had been forced to indenture themselves were to be released on the Year of Jubilee. It was most unfit that Israel, itself a slave people released from bondage by Yahweh, should tolerate bondage within its own borders. A holy people had to be a free people.

Blessing and Curse (26)

The essentially covenantal nature of Leviticus is made crystal clear in the summary statement of 27:34, which sets the whole book in the context of the Sinai covenant. The lists of blessings and curses that comprise Leviticus 26 rein-force this view of Leviticus as a covenantal text. Such lists are well known from other ancient Near Eastern texts where they impress upon the covenant recipient the seriousness of the covenant commitment. To be obedient resulted in great blessing, but to fail to obey brought judgment.

Thus a general exhortation introduces blessings and curses that follow obedience and disobedience to the covenant terms. The sting of the curses, however, is eased by a declaration of grace. The Lord affirmed that even though His people would sin and suffer exile, repentance was possible. Then God, in line with His ancient covenant promises, would restore them to Himself and to the land.

Offerings of Dedication (27)

Leviticus closes with regulations concerning offerings of dedication (chap. 27). Placed here, these laws perhaps suggest appropriate ways to respond to the lifestyle choice posed by the blessing and curse. They form a fitting conclusion to Leviticus, for the dedication of oneself and possessions to the service of God is at the heart of holiness. These laws consist of personal vows of service to the Lord, votive gifts of clean and unclean animals, and gifts of one's house or lands. These could all be redeemed or reclaimed for "secular" use by payment of the appropriate redemption price to the priest. The firstborn and tithe could not be dedicated to the Lord because they were already His possession. Whatever was irrevocably devoted to God could not be sold or reclaimed for private use but had to be destroyed as an offering to God.

Contemporary Significance. The Book of Leviticus, without doubt, is one of the most neglected of the Old Testament precisely because modern Christians fail to see what relevance it has to contemporary life. When one realizes, however, that its principal themes or ide-als—the holiness of God, His covenant with His people, and the resultant demands for holy living—are timeless and irrevocable, the pertinence of the book becomes immediately evident. God chose Israel to be His servant people and to represent Him and His saving purposes on the earth. This same God in Jesus Christ has redeemed a people in this day to serve a corresponding function. The sacrifices, rituals, ceremonies, and holy days may have lost their legal status for the church. But the principles of holiness they embodied and demonstrated are principles that must characterize the people of the Lord of every generation if they are to serve Him effectively as salt and light.

Ethical Value. The rituals of Leviticus found their fulfillment in Christ's sacrifice and are thus not binding rules for Christian worship. (See the commentary on Heb. 9-10.) In contrast, an appreciation of the holiness of God and the memory of what God has done for our deliverance—not from Egyptian slavery but from sin through Christ's death—continue to motivate Christians to holy living. It is thus not surprising that New Testament writers often echo the ethical teaching of texts such as Leviticus 19 (Matt. 22:39; Rom. 13:9; Gal. 5:14; Jas. 2:8). The detailed and complicated legislation of Leviticus is grounded squarely on the great covenant principles of the Ten Commandments. These laws find their ultimate meaning in the recognition that the God who freed Israel from Egyptian slavery (and freed us) is absolutely holy. True hope and happiness are found only in responding rightly to that God through holy lives of dedicated service. Again and again, Leviticus pleads that these things must be done because "I am Yahweh." That is, human behavior is successful to the extent that it acknowledges the Redeemer's claim to our lives and strives to mirror the holiness of God. No higher motivation for personal and community integrity can be found than in the governing theme of Leviticus: "I am the Lord who brought you up out of Egypt to be your God; therefore be holy, because I am holy" (Lev. 11:45).

Questions for Reflection

1. Why is the context of Leviticus (27:34) important for understanding its message?
2. How do the instructions for worship relate to God's purpose for the exodus?
3. What was Israel's role as God's people, and why was holiness necessary in fulfilling this role?
4. Why were sacrifices and priests necessary?
5. What were the major types of sacrifices, and what were their purposes?
6. Why is Leviticus 17-25 known as the "Holiness Code"? What does God's demand for holiness teach about His moral character?
7. What do we mean by holiness as "position" and as "condition"?
8. How do the commands to distinguish the ritually clean from the unclean reflect God's lordship?

Sources for Additional Study

Clements, Ronald E. "Leviticus." The Broadman Bible Commentary, vol. 2. Nashville: Broadman, 1970.

Harrison, R. K. Leviticus: An Introduction and Commentary. The Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1980.

Schultz, Samuel J. Leviticus. Chicago: Moody, 1983.

Wenham, Gordon J. The Book of Leviticus.

The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.