Leviticus

Sacrifice and Blood (17:1-16). Because blood was tantamount to life itself and was the God-ordained means of effecting atonement, no animal could be slaughtered outside the tabernacle. In the ancient Near East there was no such thing as ordinary slaughter for meat. For Israel to slaughter meat outside the tabernacle precincts was to shed blood to alien territory and perhaps to alien gods. The Christians of Corinth faced a similar problem regarding meat slaughtered in a pagan context (1 Cor. 8; 10:14-33).

As a metaphor for life, blood was sacrosanct and could not be eaten. This pertained not only to animals offered in sacrifice but to wild game and other edible animals as well.

Sexual Relationships (18:1-30). Strict standards of holiness also had to be observed in the area of sexual relationships. Contrary to the practices of the pagan world, the people of the Lord had to marry among their own society but not incestuously. Thus a man could not marry his mother, stepmother, sister or half-sister, granddaughter, stepsister, blood aunt, uncle's wife, daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, stepdaughter, or step-granddaughter. Likewise, adultery, child sacrifice, homosexuality, and bestiality were strictly prohibited.

Interpersonal Relationships (19:1-37). The holiness of God meant that the Israelites had to display holiness in their interpersonal relationships. The frequent echoes of the Ten Commandments (worship the one God, honor parents, keep the Sabbath, 19:3; the prohibitions against stealing, lying, and false swearing, serve as reminders that a lifestyle of holiness was a condition of God's covenant with Israel. Again and again God's people were reminded that moral behavior is not optional for those who call Yahweh Lord. The conduct required of God's people went beyond ritual matters to include providing for the poor, caring for the disadvantaged, practicing justice, loving one's neighbor, respecting the aged, caring for foreigners, and dealing fairly in business and trade. The memory of God's mighty acts in delivering Israel from Egyptian slavery was to motivate God's people to lives of compassion and justice. An appreciation of the holiness of God and the memory of what God has done for our deliver-ance—not from Egyptian slavery but from sin through Christ's death—con-tinue to motivate Christians to holy living. It is thus not surprising that New Testament writers often echo the ethical teaching of Leviticus 19 (for example, Matt. 22:39; Rom. 13:9; Gal. 5:14; Jas. 2:8).

ARTICLE: Israel's Festivals and Feasts

For the early Hebrews, public worship perhaps centered not in the more familiar sacrificial offerings but in the great annual feasts. These festivals formed an integral part of Old Testament life and are vital to the understanding of much in the New Testament.

All of the annual Jewish religious observances, except the Day of Atonement, were joyous occasions. They were feasts, festivals, and fiestas.

The Sabbath (Lev. 23:3)

The Sabbath was the most important religious festival for the Hebrews because it came every week. The Sabbath commemorates not only God's rest following creation (Exod. 20:11) but God's freeing Israel from Egyptian slavery (Deut. 5:15).

Passover (Lev. 23:4-5)

The name "Passover" indicates deliverance from the tenth plague in Egypt, the death of the firstborn. The observance falls in the spring, at the beginning of the barley harvest. It commemorated the exodus from Egypt. Along with Pentecost and Tabernacles, Passover was one of three annual pilgrimage festivals (see Deut. 16:16).

Unleavened Bread (Lev. 23:6-8)

This seven-day observance immediately following Passover recalls the Israelites' hasty departure from Egypt. Together the two festivals made up an eight-day celebration something like our Christmas through New Year's Day does.

Firstfruits (Lev. 23:9-14)

Firstfruits involved the offering of the first sheaf of grain that was harvested. This symbolized that the entire crop belonged to the Lord and that it all was a gift from His hand.

Weeks (Lev. 23:15-21)

This feast came seven weeks after the Feast of Unleavened Bread. It was a grain (wheat) harvest festival. The people read the Book of Ruth and recited the Psalms. The New Testament calls this festival "Pentecost" from the Greek word for fifty.

Trumpets (Lev. 23:23-25)

The beginning of the civil year was marked by this New Year's Day feast. It was a day of rest, of sacred assembly commemorated with trumpet blasts, and of offerings made to the Lord.

Day of Atonement (Lev. 23:26-32)

This observance, in many ways the most important annual activity, was a solemn fast. This was the one day of the year the high priest entered the holy of holies in the tabernacle or temple. At this time the scapegoat was sent into the wilderness, signifying the sending away of the people's sins (see Lev. 16).

Tabernacles or Booths (Lev. 23:33-43)

This fruit harvest festival in the fall was the most joyous occasion of the year. It lasted for seven days. Some say it was a time for the renewal of the covenant.

Sabbatical Year (Lev. 25:1-7,20-22)

Every seventh year the land was to be given a year of rest. Fields were to lie fallow. Vineyards were not to be pruned.

Jubilee Year (Lev. 25:8-17,23-55)

Each fiftieth year was also special. Property was to be returned to the family who originally owned it. Hebrew slaves and their families were to be released. Once again the land was to be given rest.

Purim (Esth. 9:20-28)

This feast, not mentioned in the Mosaic law, is described in the Book of Esther. It was established by Mordecai to commemorate the deliverance from the threats of Haman. It was a time of feasting, gladness, and the giving of gifts to the needy.

Hanukkah

This feast was established just before New Testament times. It celebrated the recovery and cleansing of the Jerusalem temple by Judas Maccabaeus in December of 164 b.c. John 10:22 calls Hanukkah the "Feast of Dedication." It is also called the Festival of Lights.

Capital Offenses (20:1-27). The laws concerning capital offenses have to be understood against the backdrop of paganism. Capital crimes tended to obliterate the differences between God's holy people and the world at large. Thus the worship of Molech, the god of the Ammonites, was punishable by death. So were other heathen religious practices, cursing of one's parents, and incest and other sexual deviations. Again, Israel was a separated people whose lifestyle was to reflect that separation for service to a holy God.

Worship and Holiness (21:1-22:33). Obviously holiness had to pervade Israel's religious life, so detailed injunctions regulated the priesthood and the eating of sacrificial offerings. The ordinary priests and the high priest had to follow strict guidelines in regard to mourning rites and marriage. They had to adhere to strict criteria of physical perfection to qualify for service. This requirement suggests that inward holiness must have outward, physical expression.

The priests had to be ceremonially clean before partaking of sacrifices. Then they and their families could enjoy their meal together as they took the portions to which they were entitled. All animals devoted in sacrifice had to be perfect specimens, for to offer Yahweh anything but the best would profane His holy name (see Mal. 1:6-8).

Holy Days (23:1-44). For the ancient Israelite holy living entailed the proper observance of holy days. These include the Sabbath, Passover and Unleavened Bread, Firstfruits, and the Feast of Weeks (or Pentecost). The fall festivals also were observed, which consisted of the Feast of Trumpets or New Year's Day, the Day of Atonement or Yom Kippur, and the Feast of Tabernacles or Booths, a reminder of Israel's wilderness experience. (See the feature article "Israel's Festivals and Feasts.")

Consecration and Desecration (24:1-23). God provided proper protocol in the administering of the affairs of the tabernacle. But He demanded punishment for violation of divine holiness, a point clearly made in the narrative about the blasphemer. This incident gave rise to related cases that directly or indirectly impinged upon the character of God and the requirements mandated to a people who claimed allegiance to Him.

Sabbatical and Jubilee Years (25:1-55). The proper observance of Sabbatical and Jubilee years was to testify to Israel's status as a holy people. The land, like the people, had to have rest; so every seventh year was set aside as a year when nothing would be planted. Then after seven such cycles, the fiftieth year too would be set apart for the rejuvenation of the land, the forgiveness of mort-gages on it, and the like. The redemption of property was to remind the people that the land was Yahweh's and was actually leased out by Him to them. Likewise, those who had been forced to indenture themselves were to be released on the Year of Jubilee. It was most unfit that Israel, itself a slave people released from bondage by Yahweh, should tolerate bondage within its own borders. A holy people had to be a free people.

The essentially covenantal nature of Leviticus is made crystal clear in the summary statement of 27:34, which sets the whole book in the context of the Sinai covenant. The lists of blessings and curses that comprise Leviticus 26 rein-force this view of Leviticus as a covenantal text. Such lists are well known from other ancient Near Eastern texts where they impress upon the covenant recipient the seriousness of the covenant commitment. To be obedient resulted in great blessing, but to fail to obey brought judgment.

Thus a general exhortation introduces blessings and curses that follow obedience and disobedience to the covenant terms. The sting of the curses, however, is eased by a declaration of grace. The Lord affirmed that even though His people would sin and suffer exile, repentance was possible. Then God, in line with His ancient covenant promises, would restore them to Himself and to the land.

Leviticus closes with regulations concerning offerings of dedication (chap. 27). Placed here, these laws perhaps suggest appropriate ways to respond to the lifestyle choice posed by the blessing and curse. They form a fitting conclusion to Leviticus, for the dedication of oneself and possessions to the service of God is at the heart of holiness. These laws consist of personal vows of service to the Lord, votive gifts of clean and unclean animals, and gifts of one's house or lands. These could all be redeemed or reclaimed for "secular" use by payment of the appropriate redemption price to the priest. The firstborn and tithe could not be dedicated to the Lord because they were already His possession. Whatever was irrevocably devoted to God could not be sold or reclaimed for private use but had to be destroyed as an offering to God.

Contemporary Significance. The Book of Leviticus, without doubt, is one of the most neglected of the Old Testament precisely because modern Christians fail to see what relevance it has to contemporary life. When one realizes, however, that its principal themes or ide-als—the holiness of God, His covenant with His people, and the resultant demands for holy living—are timeless and irrevocable, the pertinence of the book becomes immediately evident. God chose Israel to be His servant people and to represent Him and His saving purposes on the earth. This same God in Jesus Christ has redeemed a people in this day to serve a corresponding function. The sacrifices, rituals, ceremonies, and holy days may have lost their legal status for the church. But the principles of holiness they embodied and demonstrated are principles that must characterize the people of the Lord of every generation if they are to serve Him effectively as salt and light.

Ethical Value. The rituals of Leviticus found their fulfillment in Christ's sacrifice and are thus not binding rules for Christian worship. (See the commentary on Heb. 9-10.) In contrast, an appreciation of the holiness of God and the memory of what God has done for our deliverance—not from Egyptian slavery but from sin through Christ's death—continue to motivate Christians to holy living. It is thus not surprising that New Testament writers often echo the ethical teaching of texts such as Leviticus 19 (Matt. 22:39; Rom. 13:9; Gal. 5:14; Jas. 2:8). The detailed and complicated legislation of Leviticus is grounded squarely on the great covenant principles of the Ten Commandments. These laws find their ultimate meaning in the recognition that the God who freed Israel from Egyptian slavery (and freed us) is absolutely holy. True hope and happiness are found only in responding rightly to that God through holy lives of dedicated service. Again and again, Leviticus pleads that these things must be done because "I am Yahweh." That is, human behavior is successful to the extent that it acknowledges the Redeemer's claim to our lives and strives to mirror the holiness of God. No higher motivation for personal and community integrity can be found than in the governing theme of Leviticus: "I am the Lord who brought you up out of Egypt to be your God; therefore be holy, because I am holy" (Lev. 11:45).

Clements, Ronald E. "Leviticus." The Broadman Bible Commentary, vol. 2. Nashville: Broadman, 1970.

Harrison, R. K. Leviticus: An Introduction and Commentary. The Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1980.

Schultz, Samuel J. Leviticus. Chicago: Moody, 1983.

Wenham, Gordon J. The Book of Leviticus.

The New International Commentary on the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.