Luke
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Luke
The Gospel of Luke according to church tradition was written by the sometime companion of Paul, Luke. (This is indicated by the "we" passages in Acts 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1-28:16.) He likely was a medical doctor, possibly from Antioch of Syria. Though he was not Jewish, it is not known whether he was a native Syrian or a Greek.
No one knows the locale from which Luke wrote his Gospel.
The date when the book was written is disputed. Two possibilities exist: a date about a decade or so after a.d.. 70 and a date in the sixties of the first century. Those who favor a date in the seventies or eighties suggest that Luke knew about the destruction of Jerusalem in a.d.. 70, but this is not certain since there is no specific reference to this event in any text. The best one can do is see possible allusions to it in 19:41-44 and 21:5-24. The decision is linked to the date of Acts, which ends with events in a.d.. 62. If these books were written later, it is curious why later events are not explicitly narrated in Acts. It is also curious why Jewish and Gentile relations form such a central portion of dispute in Acts. This was a problem for the early church and was less a problem in the eighties. These factors slightly favor a date for the Gospel in the sixties.
Recipients. Luke was explicitly written to Theophilus (1:1-4). Theophilus appears to have had some exposure to the faith, as Luke's introduction makes clear. In fact, it is quite likely that he was a Gentile believer struggling with his association in a movement that had Jewish origins. Indications that Theophilus was Gentile are reflected in Luke's explaining certain Jewish customs or names (Acts 1:19).
Did God really plan to include Gentiles among His people? Why do the Jews, for whom the promise of God was originally intended, reject the gospel so strongly? Theophilus may have been wondering if he was in the wrong place. So Luke wrote to reassure Theophilus about God's plan. Luke may also have been writing with an eye on those who were raising doubt for Theophilus. Luke showed how God legitimized Jesus and attested to Him as the one sent to bring God's promise.
Sources. Luke said that he had predecessors, but he did not name them for us (Luke 1:1-4). Three views of sources exist.
1. Many scholars regard it as likely that Luke used Mark, some special source material only Luke had, and tradition (or, better, a collection of traditions) which he shared with Matthew.
2. Others prefer to suggest that Luke used Matthew and had his own special source material. This means that in terms of order Mark is last of the Synoptic Gospels and that Luke did not know or use Mark. In this view Mark is seen as a summarizing Gospel of the other Synoptics.
3. A few see Luke as the last of the Synoptic writers, with Matthew and Mark preceding him.
Any of the options is possible, but it is hard to explain Luke 1-2 if Luke knew Matthew's infancy account. Lukan rearrangements of parables and accounts from Matthew are also hard to account for if the second or third hypothesis is taken. Against the second option is explaining how Mark is a summary Gospel and yet omits so much of Jesus' teaching and parables. So it is slightly more likely that the first option holds.
Themes. Luke highlights God's plan. It explains how Jesus was not only Messiah but also the Prophet like Moses (see Deut. 18:15), the Suffering Servant, and the one who is Lord. Luke gradually reveals this view of Jesus, bringing the reader from a messianic, prophetic understanding of Jesus in Luke 1-2 to a view that reveals the total authority Jesus bears (Luke 22:69). It is often said that Luke presents Jesus as the "Son of Man," but this emphasis is not, strictly speaking, unique to Luke's Gospel and should be avoided in summarizing Luke. Luke is interested in Jesus as Messiah-Servant-Prophet-Lord. A full portrait of Jesus is a major concern of Luke's work.
Luke details how many in Israel became hostile to Jesus and His teaching. The bulk of this discussion comes in chapters 9-13. Many of the parables unique to Luke touch this question. The nation holds a large degree of blame in slaying Jesus as Luke 23 makes clear. But there is always hope for the nation. Luke never gave up on Israel as even in Acts 28 Paul was speaking to Jews about the promise.
ARTICLE: Virgin Birth
The angel Gabriel declared that "no promise is impossible with God" (Luke 1:37). To cause the elderly Zechariah and Elizabeth to conceive was as easy for God as to cause Mary of Nazareth to conceive a child without a human father. The "virgin birth" is the theological term for Mary, a virgin, becoming pregnant with the child Jesus through the power of the Holy Spirit. Luke, the careful and accurate compiler of eyewitness events (1:1-4), included several details that describe Mary's pregnancy as being without a human father.
- Mary is described as a virgin ( parthenos) betrothed to a man called Joseph (1:27).
- Mary said she could not bear a child because "I do not know a man" (1:34).
- The angel said the pregnancy would come about when the Holy Spirit came over Mary and "the power of the Most High" overshadowed her (1:35).
- Jesus is described as "the son, so it was thought, of Joseph" (3:23).
Matthew in addition recounts:
- Joseph, when he discovered that his betrothed Mary was pregnant, intended to terminate their engagement (1:18-19).
- The virgin birth was a fulfillment of Isaiah 7:14 (Matt. 1:22-23).
- Joseph did not have any sexual relations with Mary until after Jesus' birth (Matt. 1:25).
- The rest of the New Testament has several possible allusions to the virgin birth. Jesus' enemies questioned His father (John 8:19,41). Some of Jesus' neighbors in Nazareth described Him as "the son of Mary" (Mark 6:3). Paul described Jesus as "born of woman" (Gal. 4:4) and as the human "from heaven" (1 Cor. 15:45-48).
Usually parthenos refers to a young woman who is unmarried and therefore who has had no sexual relations with a man. For instance, Philip's four daughters are called par-thenos (Acts 21:9). Parthenos was also used to describe young unmarried men who had had no sexual relations with a woman. Paul contrasted a virgin with a married person (1 Cor. 7:25-28), and the 144,000 in Revelation 14:4 are virgin men. Matthew cited the pregnancy of Mary and the birth of Jesus as a fulfillment of Isaiah 7:14. When King Ahaz of Judah refused to ask a sign of God, God gave him a sign: "A virgin in the womb shall conceive and bear a son, and you shall call his name Immanuel." Before this child was of the age of accountability (twelve?), the land of the two kings who threatened Ahaz would be deserted (Isa. 7:17).
Isaiah and his wife, the prophetess, shortly had a child whom they named Mahershalalhashbaz ( The spoil speeds, the prey hastes) as a sign that soon Damascus and Samaria would be conquered by the Assyrians (Isa. 8:4,18). Both Damascus and Samaria fell within thirteen years of the original prophecy (732-722 b.c.). Thus the prophecy in Isaiah has at least two fulfillments, one in Mahershalalhashbaz and one in Jesus. Isaiah may have expected a more perfect future fulfillment because he and his wife did not call their child "Immanuel," even though "God" had been "with them" to protect Judah from its adversaries.
The virgin birth of Mary's child early became an important aspect of Christian doctrine because it insured that Jesus was indeed "holy, Son of God" (Luke 1:35). Having had a human mother, Jesus was fully human. Having had the Holy Spirit cause conception, Jesus was fully God. Therefore Jesus could truly be the perfect intermediary between, and representative for, God and humanity (Heb. 2:17; 4:15; 7:26-28).
The bishop of Antioch, Ignatius, who lived during the first century a.d., mentioned the virgin birth at least five times in his eight letters that have been preserved for us. For example, to the Smyrneans he wrote: The Lord Jesus Christ "is in truth of the family of David according to the flesh, God's Son by the will and power of God, truly born of a virgin" (1.1; see also Ephesians 7.2; 18.2; 19.1; Trallians 9.1).
Justin Martyr, who lived in the second century a.d., explained in his First Apology that Jesus "was begotten by God as the Word of God in a unique manner beyond ordinary birth" (22). "For 'behold, the Virgin shall conceive' means that the Virgin would conceive without intercourse ... God's power ... caused her to conceive while still remaining a virgin" (33).
The New Testament does not present the virgin birth of Jesus as some outlandish event but as simply the fulfillment of a promise by Almighty God made to a poor but devout Hebrew woman. Even as the shekinah glory filled the tabernacle and as an eagle shelters its young under its wings (Exod. 40:35; 19:4; Ps. 91:4), God's Spirit "overshadowed" ( episki-adzo) and filled Mary (Luke 1:35). Although a Jew would consider for God to "change into a human" or "a human into God" the "most grievous impiety" (Philo, Embassy to Gaius XVI), Mary believed (even if she may not have fully understood) because she agreed that "no promise is impossible with God."
Luke also spent much time explaining the proper response to Jesus. His favorite description is "repent." This picture comes in the mission statement of 5:31-32, the picture of the prodigal in 15:11-32, the picture of the tax collector in 18:9-14, and in the picture of Zacchaeus in 19:1-10. Repentance reflects a humble reception of what God offers on God's terms. It means "agreeing with God" about sin and Jesus and thus involves a genuine turning from sin toward God. This is something Paul called faith. But the opportunity Jesus brings requires that believers be committed to pursuing the lost, even the tax collector and sinner.
Luke highlighted the walk of the believer. He noted the danger of excessive attachment to wealth (12:13-21). He warned about the cost of following Jesus (14:25-35). He called for believers to love God and other people, even those who persecute (6:20-49; 18:18-30). In fact, the disciple's love is to stand out as something distinct from the love the world gives by its love for enemies and its care for every type of person. Disciples are to persist in suffering (9:23; 18:8; 21:19), watch for God's return (12:35-48; 17:22-37; 21:5-38), rejoice (1:14; 2:10; 10:17; 24:41,52), and pray (11:1-13; 18:1-8).
Literary Form. Luke is a Gospel, a form unique to the Bible. The account operates like a narrative. It is more than a biography because it is selective and has a theological message to convey. It is history but only a selective history. We are told nothing about the details of Jesus' childhood. Rather, we move from Jesus' birth directly to His ministry with only one incident at the age of twelve and the ministry of John the Baptist intervening briefly. A Gospel is a theological, pastoral explanation of the significance and impact of Jesus' life, death, and resurrection. So characters, setting, movements of time and location, mood, and the arrangement of events are all a part of telling the account of Jesus' ministry.
All the Gospels tell the events surrounding Jesus in their own way, sometimes presenting events not in their historical, chronological order but according to topical concerns. A synopsis easily reveals these rearrangements (compare Mark 6:1-6 and Luke 4:16-30 or the order of the temptations in Matt. 4:1-11 versus Luke 4:1-13). Luke's narrative is dominated by two features: the gathering of disciples in Galilee (4:14-9:50) and the journey to Jerusalem. During the journey, rejection heightens, and Jesus prepares His disciples for His departure (9:51-19:44). Here one can find the central elements in Luke's Gospel.
Luke also has many miracle accounts and parables. These emphasize the power and teaching of Jesus. Luke has more parables than any of the other Gospels. Most parables deal either with God's plan or the walk of the disciple. The explanation of His miracles and their significance comes in Luke 7:18-35 and 11:14-23.
Theology. When we look at Luke's portrait of God, the major feature is that He is the God of design and concern. Many texts allude to God's plan or to what must be (1:14-17,31-35; 2:9-14; 4:16-30; 24:44-49). The major scheme Luke applies to make this point is promise and fulfillment. Luke's use of the Old Testament often involves descriptions of Jesus (1:46-55,68-79; 3:21-22; 4:17-19; 7:22; 9:35; 13:31-35; 19:27; 20:41-44; 21:27; 22:69; 24:43-47). Other texts emphasize the immediacy of the realization of the plan "today" (2:11; 4:21; 5:26; 13:32-33; 19:5,9,42; 23:42-43). John the Baptist is the bridge in the plan (3:1-19; 7:18-35). So God's work is central to Luke. Nothing that happens to Jesus takes God by surprise.
The emphasis on Jesus has already been noted. He had many roles: teacher, prophet, prophet like Moses, Messiah, Servant, Son of man, and Lord. Luke wanted to stress the person of Jesus. He said little about how Jesus saved on the cross. In fact, only one text tackles the issue of the cross directly (22:18-20), though allusions to Jesus as the Servant occur as Jesus' baptism shows (3:21-22). Luke wanted his reader to appreciate who does the saving.
Also important to Luke is the arrival of the kingdom. In fact, the kingdom in Luke has two stages. It has already come in the authority Jesus shows over the forces of evil and in the hope of the coming of the Spirit or in the arrival of new covenant promise (10:9,18; 11:9; 17:20-21; 22:18-20; 24:49). Yet there comes a time when the kingdom will come in even more splendor (17:22-37). This combination is known as the kingdom already and not yet. Jesus will manifest His rule in stages. What comes now is but a foretaste of what will come. Part of what Jesus brings now is the Spirit (3:15-18). Though this is more emphasized in Acts, the promise is stated in Luke (24:49).
When one looks at who benefits from Jesus' coming, the simple answer is to say all people. But Luke drew attention to the poor, tax collectors, sinners, and women, since these neglected groups indicate the comprehensive nature of God's salvation. The makeup of God's new community includes all who come in faith and repentance to Christ.
When Luke discussed the blessings of salvation, he used terms like forgiveness, life, peace, the kingdom, and the Spirit. These are various ways to state that God blesses the one He saves, not with material wealth, but with spiritual riches. When Luke sought to assure Theophilus, he made sure that Theophilus was aware of how much he had received from God. The promise of God is rich in benefits.
The outline of Luke breaks down largely into geographical divisions to show the progress of Jesus' ministry.
- John the Baptist and Jesus (1:1-2:52)
- Preparation for Ministry (3:1-4:13)
- Galilean Ministry (4:14-9:50)
- Jerusalem Journey (9:51-19:44)
- Jerusalem (19:45-24:53)
Purpose. Luke wrote his Gospel for a wide variety of reasons.
1. Luke wanted to confirm the message of God's promise and salvation through Jesus.
2. He wished to portray God's faithfulness both to Israel and to all persons while explaining why so many in Israel tragically rejected Jesus.
3. He wanted to lay the foundation in Luke for his defense in Acts of the full membership of Gentiles as a part of God's people and promise.
4. He wished to offer a word of conciliation and explanation to Jews by showing how responding to Jesus is the natural extension of Judaism.
5. He wished to show that God's promise extends to all men and women by showing the variety of social classes and people who responded to Jesus.
Luke is an extremely personal Gospel, showing how people can be related to God and share in the full blessing of His promise. It is also a cosmic Gospel, since it reveals and explains God's plan. The question of fulfillment is tackled both at the racial (Jew, Gentile) and individual level. God's plan is shown as wise, thought out, and on course. The death of Messiah was always expected, and so was His resurrection. Now the call of God's people involves the commission to take the message of repentance for the forgiveness of sins to all the nations in the power of the Spirit (24:43-49).
Elizabeth and Mary (1:1-80)
After a crucial preface in which Luke explained his task, the author launched into a unique comparison of John and Jesus by showing how both represent the fulfillment of promises made by God. John was like Elijah, but Jesus had Davidic roles to fulfill and possessed a unique supernatural origin. John was forerunner, but Jesus was fulfillment. Everything in Luke 12 points to the superiority of Jesus over John, who obediently prepared the way.
Mary's hymn praises the faithfulness of God to His promise and His blessing of those who are humble before Him, setting up a major Lukan theme. Her praise is personal in tone. Zechariah reiterated the hope in national, Davidic terms and set forth the superior relationship of Jesus to John. In doing so, Zechariah links spiritual promises and national promises to Davidic hope, another theme Luke would develop in the Gospel. The goal of salvation is to free God's people to serve Him without fear and to enable them to walk in God's path of peace. In these accounts Mary pictures the one who trusts God, Elizabeth is the one who rejoices in God, while Zechariah learns to trust God.
Jesus' Birth (2:1-52)
Jesus' birth took place in humble circumstances, but all the figures surrounding His birth were pious and responsive to the hope of God. Jesus was praised by a priest, by a humble virgin, by shepherds, and by a prophet and prophetess at the temple. All reflect high expectation from people who are portrayed as walking with God. Only the word of Simeon to Mary gives an ominous ring. The old man noted that Jesus would be a "light for revelation to the Gentiles and for glory to ... Israel." In fact, Jesus would be a cause of grief for Mary and division in Israel. Jesus is the "salvation" of God, but in the midst of hope is the reality that fulfillment comes mixed with pain and suffering.
Jesus' own self-awareness concludes the introductory overture in the Gospel. Here the young boy declares that He must be about the work of His father in the temple. Jesus notes His unique relationship to God and His association with God's presence and teaching.
This section, dominated by Old Testament allusions, opens the Gospel with notes of fulfillment and indications of God's direction. These emphases continue through the entire Gospel. John and Jesus are placed side by side in the stories of Luke 1, and then Jesus has the stage in Luke 2. The structure imitates the theology of forerunner-fulfillment.
ARTICLE: The New Testament and History
There are at least three ways to approach the question of the New Testament and history. The first is to examine the historical perspectives in the New Testament writings themselves. Jesus, for instance, lived and died in the specific historical context of first-cen-tury Palestine.
The Gospels, however, show little concern with the events of the time, except as they bear directly on Jesus. It is in the story of Jesus' death and resurrection that historical references are most apparent with Jesus' appearance before the Roman procurator Pilate. For the most part, the Gospel writers were most concerned with Jesus Himself, His teachings, and His ministry rather than the larger social and political movements of the time, which are the characteristic concerns of historians.
Among the Gospel writers, Luke was the exception. He showed a definite historian's perspective. He was careful to set Jesus within the framework of world history, listing the Roman Emperor and the Syrian governor at Jesus' birth (Luke 2:1-2). He gave all the relevant rulers when John the Baptist began his ministry: the emperor, the Judean governor, the minor Jewish kings, and the Jewish high priests (Luke 3:1-2).
This historian's viewpoint is perhaps even more pronounced in Luke's second volume, Acts. He related the death of the Jewish King Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:20-23). He showed Paul encountering the political leaders of his day: the Roman proconsul of Cyprus (Acts 13:4-12), the proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12-17), the governors of Syria, Felix and Festus (Acts 24:2425:5), and the Jewish King Agrippa II (Acts 25:1326:32). Luke wanted to make clear that the events involving the young Christian movement were of worldwide significance. They were "not done in a corner" (Acts 26:26).
An equally strong concern with history is found in Revelation. The theme of the book in a real sense is that God holds the keys to all history. All the affairs of nations and their leaders stand before God's ultimate judgment. He is the Alpha and the Omega. All time, all history, begins with His creation, and in His own time He will draw the final curtain on it.
A second approach asks, What do the non-Christian historians of the first century have to say about Christianity? Actually, there are not many such references, but the few that exist are significant. The Roman historian Suetonius, in his biography of the emperor Claudius, related that Claudius in a.d. 49 expelled all the Jews from Rome because of a riot instigated by a certain "Chrestus." In addition to explaining a reference in Acts to this event (Acts 18:2), Suetonius's remark probably also is good evidence that Christianity had reached Rome by a.d. 49, for "Chrestus" most likely refers to Christ (Latin Christus). In his writings the Jewish historian Josephus referred to three New Testament figures—Jesus, John the Baptist, and James the brother of Jesus. Although the present form of Josephus's reference to Jesus has been somewhat reworked by later Christian scribes, the latter two accounts are considered reliable and confirm the impact early Christianity had on the larger Jewish community.
A final approach deals with the historical setting in which the New Testament came into being. Jesus was a historical figure whose birth, ministry, and death occurred in first-century Palestine under Roman occupation. Paul wrote to actual congregations in Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome. Revelation was written during a period when Christians were being persecuted for their refusal to participate in Roman emperor worship. In short, God sent His Son to redeem the world at a definite time in human history. All the New Testament writings are in a sense "historical documents," for they reflect the faith and mission of the early Christian movement. To understand the New Testament in light of the larger backdrop of its own contemporary world enhances our understanding of its message and our ability to communicate that message effectively in our own day.
Divine Son (3:1-38)
John and Jesus remain side by side in this initial section on Jesus' ministry. John was the "one who goes before" (Isa. 40:3-5), while Jesus is the "One who comes." Only Luke among the Gospel writers lengthens his citation of Isaiah 40 to make the point that salvation is seen by all persons. In addition, only Luke contains the section where the ethical dimensions of John's call to repentance in terms of compassionate response to others is made clear. John also warns about judgment, calls for repentance, and promises the coming of One who brings God's Spirit. John baptized Jesus, but the main feature of the baptism is one of two heavenly testimonies to Jesus (9:35 has the other).
John had promised that Jesus would bring the Spirit, but in 3:22 Jesus was anointed with the Spirit. The first hints of fulfillment occur here. The heavenly testimony calls Jesus "my son, whom I love; with whom I am well pleased." This fusion of Isaiah 42:1 ("one in whom I delight") and Psalm 2:7 ("my Son") marks out Jesus as a regal, prophetic figure who as a chosen Servant of God brings God's revelation and salvation. The universal character of Jesus' relationship to humankind is highlighted in the list of His ancestors. He is "son of Adam, ... son of God." Jesus not only has connections to heaven but also connections with those created from the dust of the earth.
Faithful in Temptation (4:1-13)
Jesus' first actions were to overcome temptations from Satan, something Adam had failed to do. So the section shows Jesus as anointed by God, representative of humanity and faithful to God. God's promise comes in through a man who is able to deliver what God offers and who can deal with sin by being faithful to God.
Who Is Jesus? (4:14-30)
Jesus' teaching and miracles dominate this section. Major teaching blocks include His declaration of the fulfillment of God's promise in the synagogue and the Sermon on the Plain (6:17-49). Both passages are unique to Luke in that the synagogue speech represents Jesus' self-description of His mission, while the sermon represents His fundamental ethic presented without concerns about Jewish tradition that Matthew's Sermon on the Mount possesses.
The section's fundamental question is, Who is Jesus? The unit pictures the growth of faith that comes to those whom Jesus gathered around Himself. Their discovery is the vehicle Luke used to answer the question of Jesus' identity. The reader is to identify with the disciples and the crowds who witness and discuss Jesus. The reader is to share in the reflection their discussions and reactions raise. Jesus followed up the disciples' response in faith with the first discussions of the hard road of discipleship. The section shows that following Jesus is full of blessing, but it is not easy.
In the synagogue speech, Jesus raised the note of fulfillment through the appeal to Isaiah 61:1 and 58:6. He said that the anointing of God promised in this passage is fulfilled today. In the context of Luke, the anointing looks back to the anointing with the Spirit in Luke 3:20-22. As such the appeal to Isaiah was not just to the picture of a prophet, as allusions to Elijah and Elisha in verses 24-28 suggest but also asserts Jesus' regal role. Jesus would bring salvation to all those in need: poor, blind, and captive. His presence means release from bondage, particularly bondage rooted in the activity of Satan, as His subsequent miracles in 4:31-44 show. Rejection, like that in Nazareth, will not be met with failure but with the taking of the message to others, an indirect allusion to the inclusion of Gentiles. The mission's scope is summarized here.
Jesus' Authority and Mission (4:31-6:11)
Jesus' ability to bring salvation is pictured in a series of miracles. These miracles show the authority of Jesus, even over evil spirits that oppress people and cause them suffering. The healings are a metaphor for the spiritual obstacles Jesus can overcome. Jesus healed, but His healings picture much more than physical resuscitation.
Beyond deliverance there also is mission. Disciples are called to be fishers of men. Unlike the fisherman, who catches fish to devour them, disciples fish to snatch people from the grip of death and damnation. But the offer of hope will yield negative reaction. The first hints of official opposition came with the miracles of divinelike authority, when the Son of man claimed to be able to forgive sins and healed on the Sabbath. This healing of the paralytic is significant because it shows the "picture" quality of miracles. Jesus healed the paralytic, but more importantly it "pictured" His absolute authority to forgive sin.
In contrast to the negative reaction came the positive responses. Levi, a hated tax gatherer, was called. And four controversies emerged, one of which involved the type of company Jesus kept, while the others centered on the Sabbath. In the midst of this debate, Jesus gave some mission statements: His task was to call the sick to repentance. His authority was such that to do good on the Sabbath is the requirement.
Love Like Christ (6:12-49)
So Jesus organized the disciples who were responding and issued a call. The Twelve were chosen. Then Jesus offered blessing to the humble and poor while warning the rich and oppressive. His Sermon on the Plain is a call to love others in the context of accountability of God. Such love is to be greater than the love a sinner shows. It is not conditional love. It is love shown to the one who persecutes. Jesus' death for sinners will be the prime example of such love. If the world is to recognize God's disciples, their love will have to be different. Such love recognizes sin in the self before it hastens to deal with sin in others. Real wisdom is to respect the authority of Jesus' teaching and respond with obedience. The mission and message of Jesus are introduced here, as well as the fundamental elements of a disciple's ethic.
Messiah for All People (7:1-8:3)
Luke 7:1-8:3 concentrates on who Jesus is and the appropriate response to Him. A Gentile centurion understood faith better than those in the nation, as the contrast between Israel and the nations surfaced. The crowd believed that Jesus was a prophet when He raised the widow of Nain's son much like Elijah and Elisha had done. John the Baptist wondered whether Jesus was the Coming One, probably because Jesus' style of ministry did not reflect the ruling, judging Messiah John had anticipated. Jesus replied that His eschatological works of healing and preaching give the affirmative answer (Isa. 29:18; 35:5-6; 61:1). He is the One who brings the time of fulfillment. The difference in the two ages is so great that John, as the best of men born up to the day of Jesus, is less than the least of those who share in the age to come.
An exemplary faith is displayed by the woman who anoints Jesus and by those women who contribute to His ministry. Here the breadth of Jesus' ministry is emphasized as women, who were held in low esteem in the first century, are raised up as examples of faith. Here also in two scenes poor women, wealthy women, and women oppressed by Satan are all brought to equal honor by Jesus.
Jesus Can Be Trusted (8:4-56)
Jesus can be trusted. With the parable of the seed and the image of the word as light, a call is made to trust God and His word, as revealed by Jesus. Those who yield fruit cling to the word patiently and with a good heart, while the obstacles to fruitfulness include wealth, persecution, and the worries of life. Jesus then showed His total authority by exhibiting sovereignty over nature, over demons, and over disease and death. All the forces of life bow at His feet.
The Center of Promise (9:1-17)
In the context of such authority, He sends out the message of promise. He sends out a mission of proclamation of the kingdom, as word about Him reaches as far as Herod. The picture of Jesus' ability to provide comes in the multiplication of loaves. Jesus is the source of life and resides at the center of promise.
Listen and Follow Jesus (9:18-50)
At this point the story moves from teaching and demonstration of authority to confession and call to discipleship. Peter confessed Jesus to be the Christ. Then Jesus explained what kind of Messiah He would be; He would suffer. Those who follow Him must have total and daily commitment in order to survive the path of rejection that comes with following Jesus. The second heavenly testimony to Jesus comes at the transfiguration. The divine voice repeats the endorsement made at the baptism with one key addition, the call to "listen to him" (see Deut. 18:15). Jesus was a second Moses, who marked out a "New Way."
The section closes with the disciples' failing, thus showing their need for Jesus to instruct them. Jesus issued calls to trust and be humble, two basic characteristics of discipleship. If one is to learn and grow, one must listen to Him.
Trusting On the Way (9:51-12:48)
Over 40 percent of this section contains material unique to Luke. There is a high concentration of teaching and parable. In fact, seventeen parables are in this unit, fifteen of which are unique to Luke. The "journey" is not a chronological, straight-line journey, since Jesus in 10:38-42 was near Jerusalem, while later in the section He was back in the north. Rather, it is a journey in time, in the context of the necessity of God's plan.
Jerusalem and the fate that met Jesus there drew near. The section explains how Jerusalem and the cross happened. Journey notes dot the section (9:51; 13:22; 17:11; 18:31; 19:28,41). Jesus traveled to meet His appointed fate in Jerusalem (13:31-35). The section's thrust is that Jesus gives a new way to follow God, which was not the way of the Jewish leadership. Its theme was "listen to him." So this section discusses how Jesus' teaching related to current Judaism. Jesus fulfilled the promise and is the Way, but His way is distinct from that of Israel's leadership. The difference surfaces great opposition, a theme dominating Luke 9-13. All are invited, but some refuse. As the new way is revealed, the seeds of discontent leading to Jesus' death are also made manifest.
The journey starts with the disciples learning the basics of discipleship: mission, commitment, love for God, love for one's neighbor, devotion to Jesus and His teaching, and prayer. Here we see the call to be a neighbor in the example of the good Samaritan. The choice of the Samaritan is a surprise, since Samaritans were not respected in Israel. Here again Jesus showed His racial breadth. Here is the example of Mary's choosing the "better" thing, which was to sit and listen to Jesus. Here Jesus revealed devotion and submission to God as He taught the disciples the Lord's Prayer, which is really to be the Community's Prayer. Also raised are notes of challenge to Judaism's leadership and a scathing indictment of them by Jesus. Their way is not God's way. Discipleship is fundamentally trusting God, not people or riches, for everything while remaining faithful to Him. If God is sovereign and cares for creation, fear Him and trust Him.
The Narrow Way (12:49-14:24)
Jesus called on the crowd to know the nature of the times of His ministry. Israel was turning away; and the time for them to respond, without facing judgment, was short. The only sign Jesus would give was the sign of Jonah, the message of repentance.
The Lukan focus on repentance here is unique to his Gospel, for in Matthew the "sign" was resurrection. For Luke the comparison was with the preaching of Jonah and the message of Jesus. Israel was like a fruitless tree that the owner of the garden was ready to remove. But tragedy is the end of all people unless they repent. Israel's house would be desolate until they recognized Jesus as sent by God. Nevertheless, blessing would still come to the earth regardless of how the nation responded. Jesus wanted His people, the Jews, to repent but knew their refusal.
Renewed Jewish condemnation of Jesus' Sabbath healings shows that the warnings and divine authentication were unheeded. Jesus said the door was closing, so be sure to enter the narrow way. He also warned that those at the table would not be those who were expected to be there. Israel ran the risk of missing out on blessing, but the table would still be full with the blessed from the corners of the earth.
Seek the Lost (14:25-15:32)
With Israel duly warned, most of the journey section concerns discipleship. Disciples in the face of rejection need absolute commitment. Their mission, even though others grumble at it, is to seek the lost, just as God does. God rejoices in finding lost sinners, so Jesus' call is to pursue them as one would a lost sheep, a lost coin, or a wayward son. When the lost come, open arms are to await them. Celebration and joy greet them in heaven.
Serve and Wait (16:1-18:30)
Beyond mission is discipleship. Discipleship expresses itself in service to others, so the disciple is generous with resources. He is not like the rich man, who ignored Lazarus. Though false teaching is a threat, it is overcome with forgiveness of the brother, deep faith, and service. Disciples are to see themselves as slaves who do their duty, something Paul also knew (Rom. 1:1).
Disciples are to live, looking for the hope of the King's return, when the promise of the currently inaugurated kingdom is consummated with judgment and the expression of Jesus' total authority. That coming will be sudden, so be ready. It will be visible, so no one will have to hunt for it. The return will be a time of severe judgment but also a time of vindication for the saints. So in the meantime, disciples should live lives of humility, should devote themselves completely to God because disciples trust all to the Father.
Messianic Authority (18:31-19:44)
Now Jesus turned to Jerusalem. He again displayed His authority when He predicted His suffering and healed as the "Son of David." The last miracle before Jerusalem returns to Jesus' Davidic, regal association, returning to the theme of Luke 12 and the issue of His trials.
Zacchaeus pictures the transformed sinner and rich man. He is a picture of the mission of Jesus, the lost who can be sought and saved. The parable of the pounds shows the need for faithfulness and the reality that the disciple, as well as the nation of Israel, is accountable to the king. Jesus entered Jerusalem as a king, but the leadership rejected the claim. Jesus warned the nation that they had failed to respond to God's promise and faced judgment. Their tragic fall drew near. Though opposition resulted in death for Jesus, opposition resulted in something much worse for the nation. Jesus predicted the nation's terrible defeat by Rome in a.d.. 70. Thus the nation was the loser, while God's plan advanced in triumph.
The Final Conflicts (19:45-21:4)
In this concluding section, Luke explained how Jesus died and why apparent defeat became victory. Luke showed how God revealed who Jesus was. In addition, the task of disciples in light of God's acts becomes clear. Luke mixed fresh material with that present in the other Gospels.
The final battles in Jesus' earthly ministry occur here, recalling earlier confrontations in Luke 11-13. Jesus cleansed the temple, signaling His displeasure with official Judaism. The leaders failed to embarrass Jesus in various controversies concerning His authority to act as He had, concerning an individual's political-economic responsibilities, and concerning resurrection. Jesus' source of authority is like that of John the Baptist; it comes from God. That which is to be rendered to God is to be given to God and is to be separated from the rights God has granted to government to operate. Resurrection changes people, so that life in the next world is different from and transcends life in this world.
In the midst of these controversies and at their end, Jesus told a parable and asked a question, which give an overview of God's plan. They revealed God's commitment to His Son despite Jewish rejection. The nation's rejection would cost them. The kingdom would go to new tenants. The question about Psalm 110 gives the reason. The Messiah is not just David's Son; He is David's Lord, who is to be seated at God's right hand. When we see Jesus, we see more than a king; we see the person God has chosen to share His authority and His rule. Jesus' death is a transition, not an end to God's plan. Jesus reveals how things stand when He condemns the scribes' hypocrisy, while praising a poor widow's simple, generous, and sacrificial faith. Blessing is not a matter of position but of the heart. The widow may have been poor, but in terms of life she was wealthier than the wealthy because her priorities were right.
Looking to the End (21:5-38)
In light of the nation's refusal, Jesus predicted the fall of the temple and of Jerusalem, events that themselves are a foretaste of the end. The fall of Jerusalem will be a terrible time for the nation, but it was not yet the end, when the Son of man returns on the clouds with authority to redeem His people (Dan. 7:13-14). This discourse on the end is hard to understand because it describes events that lead up to the fall in a.d.. 70 and the events of the end together. In Luke the events of the fall of Jerusalem are largely in view from verses 5-24. But these events are like those of the end. Disciples are to watch and be faithful. The events of a.d.. 70 are a guarantee that the end also comes, since the one set of events does picture the other.
Christ's Exaltation (22:1-23:25)
Luke 22-23 describes the moments before Jesus' death. Jesus directed where the Last Supper was held and told the disciples to prepare it. Jesus, though betrayed, was innocent, but His death would bring the new covenant and was a sacrifice on behalf of others. In His last discourse Jesus announced the betrayal, pointed out that greatness is in service, appointed eleven to authority, predicted Peter's denials, and warned of rejection. Jesus was in control, even as His death approached.
As Jesus prayed, He exemplified trust in the face of rejection, something He had exhorted the disciples to possess. The trails centered on who Jesus is. The crucial answer comes in 22:69. Jesus "from now on" would be manifest as the exalted Lord, who is seated with authority at the side of God. The allusion to being seated at the right hand repeats the allusion to Psalm 110, a passage to which Luke would return in Acts 2:30-36. Messiahship means lordship, that is, authority over God's plan and salvation. No judgment the leadership makes can prevent that from happening. In fact, ironically and unwittingly they help bring this authority to pass. Jesus was on trial, it seems; but, in fact, He was the Judge.
But it was not only the leadership that was guilty. As Pilate and Herod debated what to do about Jesus, the people were given the final choice. Despite Pilate's repeated protestations of innocence and Herod's similar reaction, the people asked for Jesus to be slain and Barabbas to be freed. Justice was absent, both in the request and in the failure of the leaders to carry out their impression. Passively and actively, the responsibility for Jesus' death widens. Everyone, whether actively or passively, shares in the responsibility of Jesus' death (Acts 4:24-28).
God Triumphs (23:26-56)
So the innocent died, while a criminal was freed. Here is the first cameo of the significance of Jesus' death as He prepares to face His departure. Next a second image of the significance of Jesus' death follows. Jesus was crucified between two thieves. One derides, but the other believes and receives the promise of life in paradise. Here is a picture of division of opinion and of eternal fate, which Jesus brings. A centurion con-fesses the righteousness of Jesus, the final word at the scene of the cross. Luke made clear that Jesus died unjustly, yet in the face of injustice God still works. Luke describes Jesus' death with Old Testament allusions that picture Jesus as an innocent sufferer who relied on God (Pss. 19; 22:8-9; 31:6). The injustice is transcended in God's plan through the coming resurrection.
Resurrection (24:1-12)
Luke closes with three scenes of resurrection and vindication. First, 24:1-12 announces the empty tomb, but the news of the excited women is greeted with skepticism. The angelic announcement told the women to recall the predictions of suffering proclaimed during the journey to Jerusalem. Luke 24 often notes that such events must take place. God's plan emerges at the end of the Gospel, just as refrains of its presence began the Gospel in the various hymns and announcements declaring its presence.
Overcoming Despair (24:13-35)
Second, the experience of the Emmaus disciples pictures the reversal the resurrection brought to the disciples' despair.
These two disciples mourned the departure of the Prophet of Israel who might have redeemed the nation. But instruction in Scripture and the revelation of Jesus Himself shows that God had a plan, which included Jesus' death. God has indeed raised Jesus, vindicating both Jesus and the plan. Despair turns to joy upon understanding the nature of God's plan and Jesus' role in it, a major note in Luke. Events that on the surface appeared devastating to Jesus' claims, in fact, were foundational to what God was doing. Jesus' death should not cause despair because it allowed heaven to open its gates to humankind.
God's Plan Fulfilled (24:36-53)
Third, Luke reported Jesus' final commission, instruction, and ascension. Just as Luke 12 opened with the hope of Old Testament promise fulfilled, so Luke 24:43-47 returns to the central theme of Jesus the Messiah as the fulfillment of God's plan and promise. Jesus' final Gospel appearance yields a commission, a plan, and a promise. The disciples were reminded again that Scripture taught the suffering and exaltation of Messiah. Jesus also told them that they were called as witnesses to preach repentance. The plan was to go to all the nations, starting from Jerusalem. The promise was the gift of the Father, the Holy Spirit (24:49; 3:15-17). As the Baptist promised, so it had come to pass. Enabling power from heaven, from on high, would come in the distribution of the Spirit upon those who had responded to the message of Jesus (Acts 2:16-39).
ARTICLE: Jerusalem in New Testament Times
Jerusalem is mentioned frequently in the four Gospels and Acts. The name also occurs in Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Hebrews, and Revelation. The name is the Old Testament designation for the city, as is the expression "the holy city" used in Matthew 4:5; 27:53.
Location and Setting
Jerusalem was the largest city in Palestine and one of the largest in Syria. It had a first-century population of about twenty thousand within the city walls and about ten thousand outside. The city owed its size and prosperity to the Jewish temple rather than location on a major trade route, a wealth of natural resources, or agricultural productivity.
The temple—with its thousands of workers, sacrifices of hundreds of animals daily, subsidy from all Jews in the temple tax (see Matt. 17:24-27), and thronging visitors (see Luke 2:41; Acts 8:27)—was the enterprise that brought Jerusalem its prosperity.
The city, whose walls enclosed an area about one mile long and half a mile wide, was located on the end of a ridge with valleys surrounding it on each side. The Hinnon Valley was to the south and west (Josh. 18:16), and the Kidron Valley was to the east (John 18:1). The Kidron Valley was the site for the Gihon spring, which King Hezekiah diverted (2 Chron. 32:30) through a tunnel to flow into the Pool of Siloam (John 9:7) to supplement the rainwater supply stored in pools and cisterns.
Major Buildings and Sites
The high priest's home (John 18:15) was located in the southwestern section of the city. Pilate's "palace" (John 18:28) was either the lavish residence of Herod the Great in the northwestern corner of the upper city or the older residence of the Hasmonean king in the northeast. Herod had converted the latter into a fortress called Antonia. This fortress was the place where Paul was taken when he was arrested in Jerusalem (Acts 22:23-29). The site of the crucifixion was outside the city walls (Mark 15:20; Heb. 13:12) to the north as was the rock tomb (John 19:41-42) where Jesus was buried.
The Mount of Olives, which was across the Kidron Valley directly east of the temple, was where Jesus taught on occasion (Mark 13:3), where the garden of Gethsemane was (Matt. 26:30-36), and where Jesus ascended (Acts 1:9-12).
The Temple
The temple was located in the northeastern corner of the city directly west of the Mount of Olives. The temple area, which was approximately three hundred yards wide and five hundred yards long, was entirely walled with the main gates being in the south wall.
Immediately inside the temple walls a portico existed with three rows of massive marble columns on the north, east, and west and four in the south. The eastern portico was known as "Solomon's Colonnade" (John 10:23;
Acts 3:11; 5:12). All of the colonnades were fully open to the large, open area paved with variously colored stones and known as the court of the Gentiles. There animals were sold, and money was exchanged (Mark 11:12-19).
Making one's way through the area of the Gentiles toward the temple building itself, one passed through a low stone fence (Eph. 2:14). This fence marked the limit for the Gentiles, and through its openings only Jews could pass (Acts 21:27-29).
The temple building was within a walled enclosure with one large entrance opening to the east, called the Beautiful Gate (Acts 3:2). Inside the gate was the area called the court of the women, where the temple offerings were received (Mark 12:41).
Only male Israelites could proceed to the next area closer to the building itself. The area immediately adjacent to the front of the building where the great altar was set was open only to the priests. The facade of the building was approximately 150 feet wide and 180 feet high.
The temple itself contained two main rooms. First was the holy place, where the seven-branched lampstand and the altar of incense (Heb. 9:2; Exod. 30:6) were and where only priests chosen by lot could enter (Luke 1:9). The inmost room, called the holy of holies, was entered only once each year and only by the high priest in the ceremony of atonement (Heb. 9:25).
Christian Symbol
The author of Hebrews used imagery drawn from the temple and its ritual to explain what Jesus accomplished: He entered into the holy of holies to win our redemption (9:11-14) and gives to all Christians the spiritual privilege limited to the high priest (10:19-22) in Jewish ritual.
Jesus' ascension pictures the exaltation He predicted at His trial (22:69). God's plan does not involve a dead Messiah but one who sits at God's side. In exaltation Jesus is vindicated, and the plan to reach all nations of people goes on. Jesus, the Messiah, is Lord of all, so the message can go to all (Acts 2:14-40; 10:34-43).
The Gospel of Luke closes with the disciples rejoicing that out of the ashes of apparent defeat, victory and promise arose. The new way was still alive, and the risen Lord showed the way. Theophilus could be reassured (1:1-4), while the history continues in Acts.
Theological and Ethical Significance. How does God want people to receive the message? The centrality of repentance as a summary term for responding adequately to God's message is prominent throughout Luke's message. The fundamental dynamic of responding to God is agreeing with Him about the seriousness of sin, turning to Him to forgive it, and trusting Him to forgive sin and deal with it. In short, we know that God has dealt with the sin problem so we can walk with God (1:77-79; 5:31-32).
As disciples follow Christ, they can count on rejection. They are to hold to the word and endure (8:1-14) and watch for the Lord's return, being faithful until He comes again (12:35-48; 18:1-8; 17:22-37; 21:5-38). The fact of Jesus' return and the reality that He returns bringing judgment should bring perspective to the temporary suffering endured by His disciples. Though some rejection exists now, reception in heaven awaits in the future (23:42-43; Acts 7:55-56). This truth has been called Luke's individual eschatology, where Luke described how heaven receives the individual faithful to Jesus.
Luke's Gospel is pastoral, theological, and historical. The reality of God's plan affects how individuals see themselves and the community to which they belong. Old barriers of race are removed. New hope abounds. The message of Jesus is one of hope and transformation. Anyone, Jew or Gentile, can belong. At the center is Jesus, the promised Messiah-Lord, who sits at God's right hand exercising authority from above. He will return one day, and all are accountable to Him. His life, ministry, and resurrection/ascension show that He can be trusted. He can bring God's promises to completion, just as He has inaugurated them. In the meantime being a disciple is not easy, but it is full of rich blessing that transcends anything else this life can offer. This is the reassurance about salvation Luke offered to Theophilus and others like him.
ARTICLE: Accounts of the Resurrection
The resurrection of Jesus Christ is the central event of the Christian faith. Its importance is well stated by the apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 15:17: "If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile; you are still in your sins."
The reality and nature of the resurrection has been debated from the time of Jesus until the present. A number of different theories have been set forth to explain exactly what happened. These can be summarized as follows:
- Swoon theory.—Jesus did not actually die. He passed out on the cross and was later revived and appeared to His followers.
- Spirit theory.—Jesus appeared only in a spirit form to His disciples. His body remained in the tomb.
- Hallucination theory.—The disciples experienced mass and personal hallucinations. They thought they saw the risen Jesus, but they were mistaken.
- Legend/Myth theory.—This is the most popular view among people with antisupernatural biases. In it the idea of "resurrection" is considered simply a first-century prescientific metaphor that expresses that in Jesus something significant was present. "Resurrection" is not to be understood as a literal bodily event of rising from the dead.
- Stolen body theory.—The body of Jesus was illegally removed from the tomb by the (a) Jews, (b) Romans, or (c) disciples of Jesus (see Matt. 28:11-15).
- Wrong tomb theory.—The followers of Jesus went to another tomb by mistake, found it was empty, and erroneously assumed Jesus had risen.
- Hoax theory.—The early church deliberately and knowingly fabricated the resurrection for personal profit.
- Mistaken identity theory.—The disciples mistakenly identified someone else as Jesus after His crucifixion and burial.
- Literal/Bodily resurrection theory.—Jesus of Nazareth was supernaturally resurrected from the dead bodily. The tomb was actually empty, and Jesus on numerous occasions appeared to His followers up until His ascension (see Luke 24:50-53; Acts 1:6-11).
No one actually saw the resurrection event within the tomb. The evidence is overwhelming, however, in pointing to theory 9, a literal bodily resurrection, as the best explanation of the biblical and historical data. The following evidences are noted:
- Naturalistic theories are weak and forced to manipulate the evidence due to their antisupernaturalism.
- The birth of the church during this time period.
- The transformation of the disciples into bold witnesses who were willing to die for their faith.
- The change in the day of worship by people raised as devout Jews from the Sabbath to Sunday.
- The testimony of women as the first to see the risen Lord. (A woman's testimony carried little if any official or legal value in the first century. That they actually saw Christ first is the best explanation for Scripture's testimony to the historicity of the event.)
- The empty tomb and the articles of clothing left.
- The unlikely nature of mass hallucinations.
- The fact that the reported appearances lasted forty days and then suddenly and completely stopped.
- The fifty-day interval between the resurrection and the proclamation of it at Pentecost in Jerusalem (see Acts 12).
- The unexpected nature of the resurrection.
- The character of Jesus and His claims that He would indeed rise.
- The fact that neither the Romans nor the Jewish leaders could disprove the resurrection event by producing the body of Jesus.
- The conversion of a skeptic like James (the half brother of Jesus) and the subsequent conversion of an antagonist like Saul of Tarsus (see Acts 9:1-31).
It is extremely difficult in all of these cases, and impossible in some, to explain these thirteen events, and others that could be listed, apart from the resurrection of Jesus Christ. When all the information is gathered and evaluated, the bodily resurrection of Jesus can be concluded to be both a historical reality and the foundation of the Christian faith.
Questions for Reflection
- What are the themes of Luke, and what additional ones did you find in your own reading of the Gospel?
- What various roles does Jesus Christ have according to Luke?
- What elements are part of the disciple's walk?
- What attitudes should a disciple have about money, suffering, the poor, the rejected, and the lost?
- What role does hope and looking for Jesus' return play in the disciple's walk?
Sources for Additional Study
Bock, Darrell. Luke. NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995.
Evans, Craig. Luke. New International Bible Commentary. Peabody, Mass.: Hendricksen, 1990.
Stein, Robert. Luke. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman, 1992.
Tiede, David L. Luke. Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988.