Esther

Esther

The Book of Esther is named after its heroine. Esther used her prominent position as queen of Persia to save the Jewish people from destruction. "Esther" is probably derived from the Persian word stara, meaning star. Some scholars have related it to "Ishtar," the Akkadian goddess associated with the planet Venus. Esther's Hebrew name was "Haddassah," meaning myrtle (Esth. 2:7).

In the Greek and English versions, Esther is the last book in the collection of Historical Books. In the Hebrew arrangement of the Old Testament, the book is one of the five Megilloth ( rolls or scrolls) occurring in the third and final section (the Kethubhim or Writings) of the Hebrew Bible. The book's plot includes the origins of the Jewish festival of Purim. Esther is traditionally read upon that annual celebration (Adar 14 and 15).

The Greek translation has five additions to the Hebrew (and English) text. These additions to Esther supplement the narrative and make the book more religious in tone (see below). Jerome's Latin Vulgate removed the additions and placed them at the end of the book. Luther also separated the additions by placing them with the Apocryphal books.

The author of the book cannot be known. The author probably used sources available from the period. The story mentions the use of royal archives (2:23; 6:1; 10:2). And Mordecai, a key figure in the story, is said to have recorded some events (9:20,23,29-32). Some interpreters have speculated that the author was a Persian Jew.

The date of writing is difficult to determine. The setting of the story is the fifth century b.c. in the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus (1:1), who is commonly identified with Xerxes I (485-464 b.c.). Scholars have suggested dates of authorship ranging from as early as the fifth century b.c. to as late as the Maccabean period (second to first centuries b.c.). A date of about 400 b.c. coincides well with the linguistic evidence and the author's excellent knowledge of Persian life.

History and Literary Genre. The reliability of the Book of Esther as a historical witness has been challenged. In more recent years many scholars have recognized that it has a historical nucleus. Some of these same scholars believe that the literary genre of Esther is historical novel or historical romance. The Book of Esther, as the argument goes, has the properties of legend and fiction. Internal oddities include Mordecai's age (at least 124 years old if he indeed were deported by Nebuchadnezzar; see 2:6; 3:7) and other questionable exaggerations (for example, 1:4; 2:12; 5:14; 9:16). It is argued that the story's protagonists and the incidents related cannot be corroborated outside the Bible. Furthermore, the Greek historian Herodotus ( History VII, 114) identified Xerxes' queen as Amestris, not Vashti or Esther.

However, scholars who esteem the book as a reliable historical witness have answered that it shows an accurate and detailed knowledge of Persian life, law, and custom. Archaeological information about the architecture of the palace and about Xerxes' reign harmonizes well with the story's depictions. The occasion of the banquet in the third year (1:3) corresponds to the remarks of the Greek historian Herodotus ( History, VII.8) that Xerxes convened his leading men in that year to plan a campaign against Greece. Also the name of a court official, Mar-duka (Mordecai?), has been attested in Persian tablets from this time. While it is not possible to identify with certainty this figure as Mordecai, the name gives the story a ring of authenticity.

As for the incongruities, evangelicals answer with alternative explanations. For example, the Hebrew text can be interpreted to mean that Mordecai's ancestor Kish was deported by Nebuchadnezzar (2:6). As for Amestris, some have attempted to equate the names of Esther and Amestris on a linguistic basis, but this has been questioned. Others have accounted for the discrepancy by suggesting that Xerxes had more than one queen or that Amestris was queen during the four years between the removal of Vashti and the wedding of Esther (1:3; 2:16).

If it can be shown that the author intended the book to be read as a literary fiction, it should be interpreted accordingly as one would a parable or allegory without doubting its inspiration. However, if the author intended it as historically verifiable, interpreters should treat it as a reliable account of the Persian Jews. The author indicates that the book should be read as historical when he invites his readers to verify this account by consulting Persian annals where the story's events (and more) can be found (10:2). This is the same kind of invitation found among the histories of Kings and Chronicles. Unless there is compelling evidence otherwise, the trustworthiness of the account should be the interpreter's guide.

Esther without "God." Esther is the only book in the Hebrew Bible that does not mention God's name. Also absent is any reference to the law, Jewish sacrifice, prayer, or revelation. It is the only book of the Old Testament absent from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Opinion about the book's religious value has varied. Luther considered it worthless. The famous Jewish scholar Maimonides (twelfth century a.d..) set it beside the Torah in importance. The book's canonical status has been disputed by Jews and Christians.

One explanation for the book's "secular" nature is that a Jewish author took the story almost verbatim from an official Persian record that omitted God's name. Others have suggested that the author was more concerned about the Jewish people as a nation than their religious practices. However, official records (for example, the Cyrus Cylinder and Moabite Stone) are known to have invoked or referred to deities without reservation. There is no reason the name of Israel's God would have been offensive to Persian religion. Old Testament literature does not make the modern dichotomy between secular concerns and religious ones when describing historical events.

A better explanation is that the absence of religious language best suited the author's theological purposes. The author expressed his theology through the vehicle of story, arranging the events and dialogue to accentuate that theology. He omitted Israel's religious distinctives because he wanted to veil God's presence. The author believed in God's sovereignty but that God's intervention is expressed through human instrumentation.

The author did not directly speak of God's participation; rather, he only hinted at God's presence. He did this through the characters who recognized divine intervention in their lives (4:15-16b). The mention of fasting and the wearing of sackcloth and ashes (4:1-3; 4:16; 9:31) imply that the Jews worshiped since prayer commonly occurred with fasting in the Old Testament. The author perceived that God effectively orchestrated the salvation of the Jews, but he did not want God's actions to be obvious.

MAP: The Persian Empire

Another way the story shows God's hand is by reversing the expected outcome of the events. Human intrigue, manipulation, and simple coincidence are the overt explanations for the dramatic changes in the story's conclusion while covertly God is at work. The story's structure further enhances the author's theme of reversals. By omitting reference to religious activities, the author commented on the spiritual status of the Jews living in the Diaspora. These Jews were the ones who did not volunteer to return to Jerusalem as part of the "remnant" through whom God would work again (Ezra 1:4; 9:8-9). Though their faith was fragile, God remained faithful to His covenant by preserving them.

Theme. God worked behind the scenes to save the Jews from destruction by exalting Esther as queen of Persia and turning the tables on their enemies (4:14; 9:1).

1. Vashti's Demotion (1:1-22)
2. The King's Decree (2:1-3:15)
3. Haman Threatens Mordecai (4:1-5:14)
4. Mordecai Defeats Haman (6:1-7:10)
5. The King's Decree (8:1-9:32)
6. Mordecai's Promotion (10:1-3)

Purpose and Theology.

1. The book's primary theological purpose is God's subtle providence in the life of His people. While Ezra-Nehemiah tells how the exiles fared in Jerusalem, the story of Esther answers what happened to those who stayed behind. The author showed through unexpected reversals in his characters' lives how God superintended the deliverance of the Jews. The theme of reversal is best illustrated by the careers of Haman and Mordecai (7:10-8:2) and the Jews' triumph Jews instead of extermination (9:1).

2. The book also explains the origins of the festival of Purim ( lots) the Jews celebrated annually on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar (3:7; 9:26). While the casting of lots appeared to seal their doom (3:7), the lots became their reason for celebration (9:23-26). The Fast of Esther in Jewish tradition precedes Purim to commemorate the fasting that precipitated their victory.

3. The idea of wealth and power is pervasive in the story with its focus on the Persian court (1:1-9; 3:1-2; 10:1). However, the power of Esther (5:1-3; 7:7) and Mordecai (6:11; 9:4; 10:2), acquired because of their loyalty to the king, triumphed over their Persian enemies. Whereas the Jews were helpless before their Gentile lords, in the end the magistrates feared and honored the Jews (8:17; 9:2).

The moral is that power should be used for righteous purposes and not for self-gratification. Moredecai, for instance, recognized that Esther's power was a gift to be used for her people's deliverance (4:14). Abusive power became Haman's noose (5:11-14; 7:10), whereas Mordecai used authority to help his people (8:7-8; 10:3).

Finally, the book is a parody on Gentile domination. Mighty Xerxes, draped in royal splendor, is depicted as a weak, easily manipulated monarch who was ill-informed about the events of his own kingdom. The prerogative of Gentile authority—the irrevocable law of the Medes and Persians—entraped the king and ultimately brought down Gentile authority (epitomized in Haman). True power is found in the virtues of loyalty, honesty, and fasting in worship of God.

4. God rewards loyalty. Vashti's disloyalty is contrasted with Esther's loyalty to the king and her people. Another contrast is the bumbling Haman, who was hanged for his conspiracy (7:3-10), while Mordecai was honored for saving the king from assassins (2:21-23). Mordecai, in particular, exemplifies loyalty to the Jewish tradition. He functioned as Esther's Jewish conscience (4:12-14), and as a "Jew" (3:3) he refused to pay homage to Haman the "Agagite" (3:1-2; 5:9). Mordecai attempted to hide their Jewish extraction, but he learned in the end that the revelation of Esther as a Jewess gave them the upper hand (2:10,20). The story shows that those of the Diaspora could be faithful to their heritage while living as honorable citizens of a Gentile state.

5. Another recurring theme is the contrast between festival and fasting. The story begins with Xerxes' elaborate seven-day feast, which ultimately resulted in Esther's appointment as queen. Later, Esther's two feasts resulted in the death of the Jews' archenemy Haman. Finally, Mordecai established the Feast of Purim, enjoyed by Jews and Gentiles for generations to come (8:15,17; 9:17,19,26-28).

The foil for this feasting is Jewish fasting, which was the author's way of expressing this people's commitment to their religious heritage (4:1-3,16). Fasting preceded feasting in the case of Esther's approach to the king (4:16), and thus fasting was also commemorated as part of their Purim (9:31). Their fasting, the outward expression of their trust in God, precipitated their victory and celebration.

6. Finally, the story addresses the problem of social and religious bigotry. Haman's anti-Semitism was frightfully expressed when he swore he would not rest until he rid himself of "that Jew Mordecai" (5:13). The Jews are warned by this story not to escape their heritage. In fact, their spiritual heritage preserved them as a people.

Vashti's Demotion (1:1-22)

The Persian King Khshayarsha was known as Ahasuerus in Hebrew and Xerxes in Greek. He is commonly identified with Xerxes I (485-464 b.c.), who is remembered for his devastating naval loss to the Greeks at Salamis in 481. The Greek historian Herodotus described his kingdom as consisting of twenty provinces and extending from India to Ethiopia.

The king convened a royal reception in his third year (483 b.c.) at Susa of Elam (modern SW Iran), which was the winter resort of the Persian kings (Neh. 1:1; Dan. 8:2). Archaeological work has uncovered the elaborate royal palace of the city.

The assembly Xerxes called lasted for 180 days, during which he displayed the splendor of his wealth. It culminated in a seven-day feast of luxurious dining and drunkenness. The opulence of the Persian court is described to indicate the vast resources and power of the king.

In a drunken stupor, the king called for Queen Vashti to "display her beauty" before his guests. Her refusal, probably out of decency, threatened the king's reputation. At Memucan's advice, the king deposed her. Xerxes' action is a parody on Persian might, for the powerful king could not even command his own wife.

The King's Decree (2:1-3:15)

The second section of the story concerns the exaltation of Esther and the evil plot by Haman to exterminate the Jews. The role of Mordecai as Esther's cousin and Haman's hated enemy links the two episodes.

Queen Esther's Rise (2:1-23). Xerxes, at his attendants' advice, ordered a search for Vashti's successor. The narrator revealed Esther's nationality by first identifying Mordecai's lineage as a Benjamite of the family of Kish. Mordecai was Esther's foster parent and elder cousin. Esther ("Hadassah," her Hebrew name) was among those brought to the king's palace because of her exceptional beauty. At Mordecai's advice she concealed her nationality, a factor that figured in her advantage over the enemy Haman.

One year of purification was required for an audience with the king. Esther was received by the king four years after the deposition of Vashti (479 b.c.; 2:16; 1:3). She won his approval and became queen. The western expedition against the Greeks by Xerxes' Persian ships ended in disaster at Salamis in 481 b.c. His selection of Esther occurred after this debacle.

Mordecai, who may have been in the king's service as a gatekeeper, discovered a plot to kill Xerxes (perhaps because of disaffection over his losses at Salamis). The two culprits were hanged on gallows, and Mordecai's heroism was recorded. From this incident Mordecai learned of Esther's new power at court. The concealment of her identity and the record of Mordecai's deed would lead to Haman's eventual undoing (6:1-2; 7:3-6). The traitors' gallows anticipated Haman's own death for the same crime of treachery (7:10).

Haman's Plan (3:1-15). The theme of power is continued by the introduction of Haman as second in position to the king. This incident took place about five years after the installation of Queen Esther (2:16; 3:7). Haman is identified as an "Agagite," perhaps a descendant of the Amalekite king, Agag, who was defeated but spared by King Saul (1 Sam. 15). Israel and Amalek were enemies from Moses' time (Exod. 17:8-16). For the author, the contention between Haman and Mordecai, a descendant of Kish (as was Saul), typified the enmity between Israel and the Gentiles. This Agagite, however, would not be spared.

While others bowed to Haman, Mordecai refused to worship him because of his Jewish faith—as Daniel had declined to worship Darius (Dan. 6). Haman masterminded a plot to exterminate all the Jews. The divinely appointed day and month was determined by the casting of the pur, meaning lot (Akkadian). The king was persuaded to permit the mass murder by official decree and sealed by the king's own signet ring (see 8:2,8). Couriers raced throughout the empire to deliver the decree that on the thirteenth day of Adar, some eleven months later, the Jews were to be destroyed. The common people of Susa were shocked by the cold-blooded decree in contrast to the conspirators, who meanwhile confidently celebrated.

Haman's Threat (4:1-5:14)

Esther's position enabled her to save the Jews if she were willing to risk her own standing. After recounting Esther's vow of devotion, the author told how Esther took the lead and devised her own scheme to outmaneuver Haman. Ironically, Haman unwittingly devised his own end.

Mordecai's Plea (4:1-17). When Mordecai learned of the murderous plot, he and all the Jews joined in mourning, fasting, and the wearing of sackcloth and ashes. This spontaneous act of grief evidenced the solidarity of the Jews. The custom of sackcloth and ashes included prayers of confession and worship (1 Kgs. 21:27-29; Neh. 9:1-3; Dan. 9:3). Esther learned of the decree from her messenger Hathach, who relayed Mordecai's plea for her help. But Esther explained that she could not approach the king because Persian law meted out death to anyone entering uninvited. Mordecai answered by warning her that as a Jewess her own life was in jeopardy and that God could save His people by another means if she failed. He believed that her exaltation in the palace had a holy purpose. Esther's trust in God was the turning point. She requested a communal fast by all the Jews as they petitioned God (Ezra 8:21-23; see Acts 13:3; 14:23). She replied to Mordecai with courage and confidence in God's will: "If I perish, I perish" (see Dan. 3:16-18).

Esther's Banquet (5:1-14). The prayers of God's people were answered because Xerxes received Esther without incident. She invited the king and Haman to a banquet whereupon she would make her request known. Once the guests had enjoyed their fill, Esther wisely delayed her request for another day of feast-ing—no doubt to heighten the king's interest in the petition.

Haman left in a happy mood, but it was tempered by his fury for "the Jew Mordecai." Haman boasted of his authority, but these boasts would later turn into tears of humiliation (6:12-13a; 7:7-8a). Haman's friends and family would be repaid with their own lives on the very gallows they had recommended for Mordecai (7:10; 9:14).

Mordecai Defeats Haman (6:1-7:10)

This section features the key reversal in Haman's and Mordecai's fates. Mordecai was honored by the king, much to Haman's humiliation. The final indignity of foolish Haman was his pathetic effort to save himself from the gallows.

Mordecai Honored by Haman (6:1-14). The unstated reason for the king's insomnia was God's providence. To pass the sleepless night, servants brought the royal annals where Mordecai's deed of saving the king was read (see 2:19-23). Haman was consulted, but ironically his egotism caused him unintentionally to honor Mordecai. The depiction of Mordecai dressed in royalty and being led on horseback by Haman anticipates their inverted roles to come. Even his friends and wife voiced the theological proposition of the book: Mordecai is invincible because he is a Jew.

Haman's Hanging (7:1-10). Not only did Mordecai get the best of Haman, but Esther outsmarted him. On the following day, Esther assembled her guests for the second banquet, during which she revealed her entreaty (see 5:7-8). The fivefold repetition of "Queen Esther" in this chapter echoed Mordecai's plea that she had come to power for this moment (4:14). Alluding to Haman's bribe (3:9), she described herself and the Jews as "sold for destruction." She identified Haman as the adversary.

Haman, true to his character as a blundering dunce, begged for the queen's mercy, thus breaking protocol with the king's harem. He magnified his folly by stumbling to her couch, creating the appearance of improprieties and thereby sealing his doom with the irate king. The gallows, whose references tower over much of the narrative (2:23; 5:14; 7:9-10; 8:7; 9:13,25), afforded the Jews their vindication by the hanging of Haman.

The King's Decree (8:1-9:32)

This royal decree Mordecai wrote answered Haman's evil decree (see 3:8-11). This parallelism continues the theme of reversal, the decree enabling the Jews to take the offensive against their enemies. The thirteenth of Adar, the day planned for the Jews' destruction, was exchanged for the two-day celebration of Purim because of the Jews' conquest.

Mordecai's Plan (8:1-17). Rather than Jewish property falling into Haman's hands (3:13b), Haman's property and authority were given to Esther and Mordecai. But Haman's villainous plot remained, and Esther successfully pleaded for the king's assistance to avert the disaster. The decree Mordecai wrote gave the Jews the right to defend themselves.

Mordecai took Haman's place as second to the king (8:15). Whereas the city of Susa was disturbed at Haman's decree (3:15), Mordecai's edict gladdened their hearts and converted some to the Jewish faith.

Feast of Victory (9:1-32). The dates of the edict and the subsequent victory of the Jews were repeated by the author because they established the traditional calendar for the Feast of Purim. On the thirteenth day of Adar (Feb.- Mar.), the appointed day of Haman's plot, the Jews defeated their enemies. The nations feared the Jews, and local magistrates were favorably influenced by Mordecai's position in Xerxes' court. The king granted a second day of vengeance (the fourteenth of Adar). In Susa eight hundred were killed, and Haman's ten sons were hanged. Among all the provinces, the Jews killed seventy-five thousand.

This explained why Purim was celebrated in the city on the thirteenth and fourteenth and in the provinces on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar. The author reiterated that the Jews, however, did not loot their enemies. The motivation for the purging was not economic but an avenging of crimes committed against the Jews. Mordecai gave the official decree establishing Purim. The feast was named Purim because of the pur ("lot") cast by Haman. The purpose of the feast was a memorial to Haman's wicked plot, which returned "onto his own head." To promote the feast Esther added her authority to a joint letter distributed with Mordecai.

Mordecai's Promotion (10:1-3)

The story concludes in the way it began by describing the power and influence of Xerxes' kingdom. The author refers the reader to the official records of the empire where a full account of the kingdom and the role played by Mordecai could be examined (see 1 Kgs. 14:19; 15:7). Mordecai contributed to the prosperity of the empire and cared for the Jews' welfare. The greatness of Mordecai vindicated the Jews as a people. Their heritage was not a threat to the Gentiles, but rather through Mordecai and the Jews the empire enjoyed peace.

Theological and Ethical Significance. Our modern experience of God is more like that of the Book of Esther than that of many Old Testament books. In Esther, God worked behind the scenes to bring about deliverance for His people. God did not bring deliverance through spectacular plagues or a miracle at the sea as in the exodus. Rather, God worked through a courageous old man who refused to abandon his principles and a courageous woman who valued the lives of her people more than her own life. The Book of Esther calls us to look at the lives of people committed to God if we want to know what God is doing to bring about deliverance in our own world.

The outlook for Mordecai and the Jews looked bleak through much of Esther. Today we may feel that God has abandoned us or that it is not profitable to be on the Lord's side. The last chapters of Esther brought about God's reversal of circumstances. We should live our lives with a view to how our story is going to end. Someday every knee will bow "and every tongue confess that Jesus is Lord" (Phil. 2:10-11). What occassioned fasting and anxious prayer will be forgotten in heaven's feasting (see Rom. 8:18).

As Christians our power and influence should be used for righteous purposes and not for self-gratification. Power is a gift from God to be used for the benefit of His people and His creation. Christian citizenship demands involvement in the affairs of the state. Anti-Semitism and other forms of racial and religious bigotry easily lead to dangerous abuses of power. Today's Christians, like Esther, must be courageous in opposing such abuses.

Questions for Reflection

1. What is the proper relationship between religion and politics?
2. What does the story of Esther teach about evil and suffering?
3. What godly traits did Mordecai exemplify?
4. What is the purpose of fasting?
5. What does this story teach about the care of God for His people?

Sources for Additional Study

Baldwin, Joyce G. Esther. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1984.

McConville, J. G. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985.

Vos, Howard F. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.