ARTICLE: Apocalyptic Literature

The Greek word apokalypsis ("apocalypse"), found in Revelation 1:1, provides the title for the final and climactic book of the Bible. In modern literary study Revelation, Daniel, several other biblical books (to a lesser degree), and a wide range of extrabiblical Jewish writings have been characterized as examples of biblically related apocalyptic literature. Similarities in thought and form have also been noted with certain Persian apocalyptic writings and elsewhere.

The Age of Apocalyptic Literature. It is almost universally agreed that the first full-blown example of biblical apocalyptic is the Book of Daniel. Other limited Old Testament inclusions of apocalyptic may be seen in Ezekiel and Zechariah. Certain scholars place Daniel during the Maccabean period of Jewish history, specifically about 165 b.c. But there is no compelling evidence against dating it in its stated sixth-century b.c. setting along with Ezekiel or viewing Zechariah as having a fifth-century b.c. point of origin.

Differences in the literary characteristics and thought patterns between earlier biblical apocalyptic and that of the intertestamental period must be viewed as a further, and only partly related literary, development. That conclusion becomes even clearer when we realize that Daniel, Ezekiel, and Zechariah all contain numerous characteristics of biblical prophecy as well as apocalyptic.

They could be categorized as "prophetic-apocalyp-tic," perhaps more as a hybrid of the two types of literature than as a transitional form, especially considering that the New Testament Apocalypse (Revelation) also describes itself as prophecy (see Rev. 1:3; 22:18-19).

There is a sense in which the period between the early second century b.c. and the later second century a.d. represented the "flowering" of apocalyptic in Jewish circles. That is true even if only because so many apocalyptic books or portions, mostly extrabiblical, were written during that time. A number of such works have been traced to separatist groups like the Qumran community, famous for most of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

It is also accurate to refer to the latter part of that period as the high point and climax of biblical apocalyptic. The emergence of the Book of Revelation as well as Christ's Olivet discourse, often referred to as a "little apocalypse," represent the end of canonical apocalyptic literature. Jewish apocalyptic of a somewhat different style continued on in earnest for another century or so before beginning to give way to more formal main-stream Judaism.

Overall it seems fair to say that apocalyptic flourished during periods of foreign domination, starting with the Babylonian exile. The Maccabean era and the persecution of the church under the Roman Empire during the latter first century a.d. were similar historical contexts.

After the second Jewish revolt against Rome in a.d. 135, apocalyptic began to decline and eventually ceased after the fourth century a.d.

Characteristics and Theology of Apocalyptic. There are several literary characteristics common to apocalyptic, as well as a relatively consistent pattern of theological thought. That does not mean that there may not be significant differences between various apocalyptic books. But the strikingly similar characteristics and theology marks them as legitimate examples of the apocalyptic form.

One agreed-upon characteristic is that all apocalyptic works claim to have been written by significant biblical characters. Books like Daniel and Revelation almost certainly were written by historical figures, as supported by strong internal and external evidence. However, most other apocalypses only assert that they were authored by important Old Testament (and some New Testament) figures (for example, Enoch, Ezra, Solomon) to gain a hearing, a feature called pseudonymity. Thus the actual writers of the bulk of apocalyptic works are unknown. Apocalyptic writing is also known by its use of visions and symbolism. The revelations, dreams, and visions were often narrated or interpreted by an angelic figure. Sometimes the writer is even caught up into the heavenly realm. The striking symbolism of Daniel's visions is found to accurately portray the sweep of history in advance by its interpretive sections and later fulfillments.

But such symbolism was taken to bizarre extremes by much of later apocalyptic. Also many of the pseudononymous apocalypses are little more than history that has been recast to appear to be futuristic prophecy, with the actual uncertainty about what was still future masked by vague symbolism.

In addition, apocalyptic focused side by side on the movement of world history, especially as it related to the Jewish people and coming of the Messiah. Apocalyptic writers were not just predicting the future but fitting its development into a theological framework, frequently with a climax of messianic intervention on behalf of God's people. For example, Daniel 7 builds upon the earlier vision in Daniel 2. But it clarifies the wider progression of beastlike world empires (7:3-8) by showing that the messianic figure, "The Son of Man," will gain everlasting victory through God's power (7:9-14), delivering and vindicating "the saints," God's people.

The above consistent literary characteristics are paralleled by a broader theological pattern. Several interlocking theological emphases show up again and again in these writings, making vivid use of the literary style of apocalyptic. Again biblical and extrabiblical apocalypses are comparable at a number of points but also quite different at others.

Studies of apocalyptic often note that it is "dualistic" (God versus Satan) and "deterministic" (history is determined in advance in moving toward God's ultimate victory). These out-looks have been used to compare biblically related apocalyptic to other types, such as the Persian form. However, the much more specific emphasis on what could be called spiritual warfare at its highest level and the loving but just sovereignty of God over history marks Jewish and Christian apocalyptic as truly distinctive. For example, the unseen angelic conflict in Daniel 10 leads into the movement that climaxes in the resurrection and divine judgment in Daniel 1112. Also the climactic stratagems of the devil, his ongoing war against God, are ended by the appearing of Christ in Revelation 19:1120:3.

Two other related theological perspectives can be called "eschatological realism" and an "imminent expectation" (possible near occurrence) of the final events. Some scholars describe the conclusion that the end times will be a time of "great tribulation" (Dan. 12:1; Matt. 24:21; Rev. 7:14), suffering, and catastrophic events as pessimism. However, because that is the straightforward conclusion of what the apocalyptic works set forth, and because there is an inarguable, optimistic conclusion (God's victory), it is better to view this overall pattern in terms of biblical realism.

With many of the extrabiblical apocalypses, this combination of anticipated suffering and possible near-term divine intervention combined to produce an ethically passive attitude. It apparently seemed to such apocalypticists that there was nothing that could be done except to hang on until the Lord intervened. However, biblical apocalyptic is marked by numerous challenges to godly living in light of the possible soon arrival of the climactic events of history (Dan. 12:2-3; Rev. 1:3; 21:7-8).