2 Kings

2 Kings

First and Second Kings form one narrative which recounts the history of Israel's monarchy (compare the introduction to "1 Kings" for a fuller discussion).

Theme. God destroyed the kingdoms of Israel and Judah because their kings led the people to do evil by disobeying the covenant of the Lord (22:13).

1. God's Prophet Elisha (1:1-8:29)
2. Decline and Destruction (9:1-17:41)
3. Survival and Final Days (18:1-25:30)

Purpose and Theology.

1. Second Kings continues the recital of Israel's demise. One objective of Kings is to show how God was justified in destroying His people. Israel was given over to the Assyrians because it persisted in the idolatrous worship promoted by Jeroboam (17:21-22). Judah suffered the judgment of God because of the sins of Manasseh, whose reign epitomized the evil of Judah's kings. King Josiah's revival of orthodox worship was not sufficient to turn away God's appointed wrath (21:10-15; 23:25-27)

2. The basis of God's judgment was the Mosaic covenant as described in Deuteronomy. The kings fell far short of the divine ideal (Deut. 12). Because Israel broke the law of Moses by worshiping at the pagan high places, God set in motion the curses of the covenant (2 Kgs. 10:21; 17:7-13; see Deut. 28). The recurring theme of divine retribution peaks in the latter half of 2 Kings. (For example, 5:26-27; 9:25-37; 13:2-3; 17:7,25; 19:27-28; 20:16-18; 21:12.)

3. The author showed that the Lord is at work in the history of Israel. God's activity is seen in His warnings delivered by the prophets and His judgment carried out "according to the word of the Lord" (for example, 1:17; 10:17; see 9:25-26,36-37; 10:10; 14:25; 15:12; 17:18-23). His sovereignty is demonstrated by His assigning victory or defeat to nations and by His establishment of kings or deposing of kings. (For example, 5:1; 7:6; 10:32; 13:5; 14:27; 15:37 and 8:13; 9:6.) Through Israel's history, the Lord is proven to be the one true God (5:15; 19:19).

4. Another evidence of God's intervention is Elijah's numerous miracles. Although it was a dark hour in the life of the nation, Elijah's ministry demonstrated that God was still mighty among His people (for example, 2:13-14; 4:34-35; 5:1-18; 13:20-21).

5. Finally, the grace of God is an important theological lesson of the book (13:22-23; 14:26-27). God spared Judah from Assyria and Hezekiah from a fatal illness in response to his prayers for deliverance (19:14-34; 20:1-11). A glimmer of hope concludes this gloomy book of destruction (25:27-30). David's descendant Jehoiachin was alive in Babylon, and there was hope that God would restore Israel and its king. The book was directed to those living in the Babylonian exile. It was their duty to heed the warnings of the book and repent in preparation for the return to their homeland.

Elisha (1:1-8:29)

The introductory section continues the story of the prophets, Elijah and Elisha, who delivered the word of the Lord during this decadent period in the life of the nation. Elijah's ministry closed with his ascent to heaven. But his successor, Elisha, picked up his mantle and performed a double portion of God's wondrous acts. Through the prophetic ministry of Elisha, the Lord guided Israel to victories over their enemies, the Moabites and Arameans. God showed through Elisha that He also is the Lord of all nations who shapes their destinies. While the Lord met the specific needs of His faithful people, He judged the servant Gehazi for his greed.

Ahaziah Consults Baal-Zebub (1:1-18). The reign of Ahaziah (853-852 b.c.) was introduced in 1 Kings 22:51-53. When Ahaziah suffered an accident in his palace, he sent messengers to consult the Phoenician god Baal-Zebub to learn if he would recover. But Elijah interrupted the travel of Ahaziah's messengers and announced that the king would die because he sought Baal-Zebub rather than the Lord. Time and again 2 Kings emphasizes that dependence on other gods is a way that leads to death. After three attempts by Ahaziah's delegations, Elijah went personally to the bed of the king to repeat his message. The king died just as the Lord had said through His prophet.

The name Baal-Zebub ( lord of the flies) was an intentional play on the original name Baal-Zebul, meaning lord of the lofty abode or princely lord. Beelzebub, the New Testament form of the name Baal-Zebub, became a symbol of Satan by the time of Christ (Matt. 10:25; 12:24-27).

Elijah's Ride to Heaven (2:1-25). The final days of Elijah prepared the way for Elisha to follow in his footsteps. Elisha accompanied Elijah from town to town awaiting the arrival of the whirlwind of God that would usher the great prophet into heaven. Elisha swore that he would not leave Elijah's side until he received a "double portion" of Elijah's spirit. As the firstborn, a son received a double portion of a father's inheritance (see Deut. 21:17). When the chariot of fire came for the prophet, Elisha exclaimed: "My father! My father! The chariots and horsemen of Israel!" Elijah had at one time prayed to die under a broom tree (1 Kgs. 19:3-4), but God took him in a whirlwind to heaven. He and Enoch (Gen. 5:24) were the only two men in Scripture to be translated to heaven.

The fallen cloak of Elijah was symbolic of Elisha's spiritual inheritance. With the cloak he duplicated Elijah's miracle of crossing the Jordan River on dry ground. This proved that Elisha had received his ministry.

The company of prophets doubted Elisha's credentials. Elisha demonstrated his authority by healing, that is, purifying, the polluted waters of Jericho. Also he invoked a divine curse upon his detractors, who mocked Elisha by urging him to ascend into heaven like Elijah. Two ravenous bears killed the wicked young men.

Joram of Israel (3:1-27). During the reign of Joram (852-841 b.c.), Mesha, king of Moab, rebelled against Israel. Joram recruited King Jehoshaphat of Judah (see 1 Kgs. 22) and the king of Edom to help subjugate Mesha. The absence of water because of dry stream beds hindered their campaign. Elisha, for the sake of David's descendant Jehoshaphat, agreed to consult the Lord in behalf of Joram.

The Lord instructed them to dig trenches, which He flooded with water. When the Moabites saw the water, it appeared red like blood to them, and they mistakenly believed that the three kings had fought among themselves. The reddish appearance has been explained as the water's reflection of a colored red stone known in that area bordering Edom and Moab. The Moabites attacked prematurely and were defeated. When Mesha saw the battle was lost, he offered his firstborn son as a sacrifice to appease the anger of the Moabite deity Chemosh (see 2 Kgs. 16:3; 21:6). Human sacrifice was prohibited by the Lord, who called upon the Israelites to give their firstborn to God as living sacrifices, devoted to His service (Exod. 22:29-30; 34:20; Deut. 18:10). The armies of Israel withdrew out of fear.

The Moabite stone found at Dhiban, Jordan, in 1868 contains an inscription by Mesha, who offered a different interpretation of his wars with Israel. He admitted his subjugation to Ahab but boasted that Chemosh had given him victory over Israel.

Faithful Servants (4:1-44). A prophet's widow had no means to pay her creditors except selling her sons into slavery. Elisha multiplied the small amount of oil she possessed, and it was sold to pay her debts.

In Elisha's itinerate ministry, he stayed in the house of a wealthy Shunnamite woman whenever he traveled in Jezreel. Because of her ministry to the prophet, the Lord gave the woman and her aged husband a son. Later, when the boy took ill and died, God answered the prayer of Elisha and restored him to life (see Elijah, 1 Kgs. 17:17-24).

The Lord met the needs of his prophets through Elisha's ministry of miracles. Elisha purified a pot of poisonous stew by throwing flour into it. The Lord fed one hundred of the prophets from only twenty loaves of bread (see Matt. 14:13-21; 15:32-38; John 6:5-13).

Naaman's Leprosy (5:1-27). Naaman, the second in command to the king of Aram (Syria), suffered from the dreaded disease of leprosy. A captured Israelite girl told Naaman's wife about Elisha, the Lord's prophet, who could invoke the Lord to heal the general. When Naaman arrived at Elisha's house bearing great sums of money, a messenger instructed Naaman to bathe seven times in the River Jordan. Because of his pride he went away angry, refusing to wash in the muddy waters. His servants convinced him to do so, and the Lord healed him. Naaman declared, "There is no God in all the world except in Israel." Naaman converted to the Lord and regretted that in carrying out his official duties he would have to accompany his king into the temple of their pagan god Rimmon.

Although Elisha had refused a gift from Naaman, the prophet's servant Gehazi secretly detained Naaman to ask for money. But Elisha knew of Gehazi's greed and condemned him to Naaman's leprous disease.

The Axhead (6:1-33). Among the miraculous stories about Elisha is his retrieval of a lost axhead. The prophets experienced the blessing of the Lord, and their increasing number required new housing. A prophet's axhead was lost in the Jordan where he was cutting down trees. Elijah threw a stick into the river, whereupon the axhead came to the surface.

The Arameans led two campaigns against the king of Israel. In the first raid the Lord enabled Elisha to tell the king of Israel the precise movements of the Aramean armies so that Israel might escape entrapment. The Aramean armies attempted to kill the prophet, but the Lord's horses and chariots of fire encircled Elisha and his servant. The Lord answered Elisha's prayer and struck them blind. After God restored their sight, Elisha released them for home so that they might warn their king.

Later the Arameans under Ben-Hadad ordered a full-scale invasion of Samaria. The siege caused famine in the city, and the king of Israel blamed the prophet Elisha for their misery. He probably interpreted this as a punishment from the Lord. The king sent a messenger to kill the prophet.

The Lord Delivers Samaria (7:1-20). When the king's messenger approached the prophet, Elisha prophesied that within a day they would be delivered. The messenger ridiculed the prophet's words and later paid for it with his life.

That night the Lord created the rumbling noise of an approaching army, and the Arameans left their camp, thinking that mercenary troops had come to Samaria's aid. On the next day lepers discovered the abandoned camp with its provisions. The whole city rushed through the gateway, trampling to death the messenger who had mocked the prophet's message.

Shunnamite Woman (8:1-15). The Lord brought a great famine against Israel, and Elisha advised the Shunnamite woman, whose son was brought back to life (4:8-37), to reside in Philistia. After the seven-year famine, her lands were restored to her by the king because he heard of her story from Gehazi, the servant of Elisha.

Elisha went to Damascus to anoint Hazael, Ben-Hadad's military commander, to be king over Aram. Elisha wept because he knew Hazael would oppress the Lord's people. Ben-Hadad was ill, and Hazael, incited by the word of the Lord, assassinated the king.

Jehoram and Ahaziah (8:16-29). Jehoram's reign included a coregency with his father Jehoshaphat (853-841 b.c.). Jehoshaphat foolishly married Jehoram to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab. Jehoram behaved like the wicked kings of Israel, but God spared his reign because he was of the house of David (see 2 Sam. 7:13-16).

Ahaziah's rule (841 b.c.) was wicked like his father's because he was influenced by his in-laws, the family of Ahab.

This ultimately spelled disaster for the house of Judah since his reign was followed by that of his evil queen mother, Athaliah, Ahab's daughter. During Ahaziah's reign, King Joram of Israel was wounded by the Arameans at Ramoth Gilead. Ahaziah visited his uncle Joram at Jezreel, where he was recuperating.

Decline and Destruction of Israel (9:1-17:41)

The second section describes the deterioration and eventual collapse of the northern state of Israel under the weight of its religious paganism and political infighting. Jehu's dynasty rid Israel of its Baalism, postponing God's wrath. But the slide to destruction came quickly after-wards with the rise and fall of four dynasties within the short span of thirty years. The climax of the account is the final chapter of the section, which explains why Israel did not survive (17:7-41). By disregarding the covenant, Israel chose death (Deut. 30:19-20).

Meanwhile, the descendants of David escaped annihilation only by the grace of God. The alliances of Jehoshaphat with Israelite kings (see 1 Kgs. 22; 2 Kgs. 3; 2 Chr. 20:35-37), sealed by intermarriage (2 Kgs. 8:18; 2 Chr. 18:1), threatened the very existence of the Davidic line when Athaliah became queen mother. The salvation of Judah by Joash and the success of Amaziah's reign were the only two periods of stability in the otherwise tottering kingdom to the south.

House of Ahab (9:1-37). Jehu, King Joram's commander, defended Ramoth Gilead against the Arameans. Elisha delegated one of the prophets to anoint Jehu king of Israel. The Lord commanded Jehu to avenge the blood of His prophets by killing the ruling descendants of Ahab and Jezebel.

Jehu drove his chariot furiously from Ramoth to Jezreel. When the two kings Joram and Ahaziah saw him approach, they met him in the field that had belonged to Naboth. When the kings recognized his intentions, they fled for their lives. Jehu killed Joram and tossed his body on Naboth's land, fulfilling God's judgment on Ahab's house (see 1 Kgs. 21:21-22,29). Ahaziah also was fatally wounded.

Jezebel mocked Jehu from her Jezreel residence by likening him to the murderous Zimri (1 Kgs. 16:9-10). Jehu called for the palace guards to toss her from the window. Where her body splattered, horses trampled her and ravenous dogs chewed her body. Her death fulfilled God's vengeance for the murder of Naboth (1 Kgs. 21:23).

Jehu's Bloody Coup (10:1-36). Jehu threatened Samaria's officials, and they appeased him by decapitating Ahab's seventy sons. Jehu did this in accordance with the Lord's command (2 Kgs. 9:7-10), but Jehu's coup went beyond the specific directives of the Lord. He slaughtered forty-two relatives of King Ahaziah of Judah, seizing the opportunity to weaken his rival's throne. The bloodbath was remembered for almost one hundred years (see Hos. 4:1-2). He also killed all the relatives and associates of Ahab.

Jehu continued his purge by exterminating the worshipers of Baal and burning their temple. Yet Jehu sinned like his fathers because he did not remove the golden calves at Dan and Bethel. God nevertheless preserved the house of Jehu for four more generations, lasting almost one hundred years.

During his reign (841-814 b.c.), Jehu's kingdom lost the Transjordan to Hazael of Aram. To avert further loss, Jehu made an alliance with the Assyrians. The black stone monument Assyria's King Shalmaneser III erected tells how Jehu became an Assyrian vassal (841 b.c.). The stone depicts Jehu kneeling before the king and bearing gifts.

Athaliah and Joash (11:1-21). With the death of her son Ahaziah, Athaliah seized the throne and killed the royal descendants of David. But God, upholding His promise to David, preserved Joash the son of Ahaziah. Jehosheba, the half-sister of Ahaziah and wife of the high priest Jehoiada (2 Chr. 22:11), hid the boy in the temple for the six years of Athaliah's reign. In conspiracy with the temple guards, army, and mercenary Carites (see the Kerethites of 2 Sam. 20:23), Jehoiada proclaimed Joash king in the temple (11:1-12).

Athaliah was taken and executed by the guards. Jehoiada renewed the covenant of the Lord, and the people removed the idols associated with the Baal worship Athaliah had promoted. Joash was enthroned at the age of seven.

Joash's Religious Reform (12:1-21). The forty-year reign of Joash (835-796 b.c.) was righteous in the sight of the Lord because of the religious reforms he introduced in Judah. When the priests failed to raise the funds to repair the neglected temple, Jehoiada collected monies in a chest located in the temple. Joash's rule was marred, however, when he sent the holy articles of God to the Aramean king, Hazael, as payment of tribute. The people God had redeemed from Egyptian slavery were to remain politically free so that they would be free to serve God. Political unrest led governmental officials to assassinate Joash.

Jehoahaz and Jehoash (13:1-25). Jehoahaz (814-798 b.c.) succeeded his father, Jehu, but led Israel to worship the Asherah pole, a representation of the Canaanite fertility goddess. The Lord used the Arameans to reduce Israel's army.

Jehoahaz's son Jehoash ruled for sixteen years (798-782 b.c.) and was remembered for his oppression of King Amaziah of Judah (see 14:1-14). During his reign Elisha was dying from an illness, and Jehoash came to his bedside and wept. Elisha instructed him to strike the floor with his arrow. After he struck the floor three times, Elisha predicted that the Lord would give him three victories over the Arameans. The Lord granted those victories over the Aramean king, Ben-Hadad, who succeeded his father Hazael.

God honored both the life and death of the great prophet Elisha. A dead man was brought back to life when his body was placed in the tomb with Elisha's bones.

Amaziah (14:1-29). Amaziah (796-767 b.c.) pleased the Lord during his reign as his father Joash had done. He executed his father's assassins (see 12:20-21) and defeated the rebellious Edomites. His arrogance, however, brought him defeat by Jehoash of Israel. Jehoash broke down the walls of Jerusalem, raided the temple treasuries, and took hostages. Ironically, like his father's, Amaziah's rule ended by a conspiracy of assassins in Lachish.

Jeroboam II (14:23-29). The kingship of Jeroboam gave Israel one of its greatest periods of political stability and territorial growth (793-753 b.c.). The prophet Jonah advocated the expansionistic policies of Jeroboam. The Lord gave Israel a respite from their woes through Jeroboam, but Jeroboam too followed in the wicked ways of his namesake. The prophet Amos condemned the greed and immoral decadence of Israel during Jeroboam's reign. (See "Amos.")

Azariah (15:1-7). Azariah's coregency and reign totaled fifty-two years (792-740 b.c.). Azariah, also named Uzziah, was contemporary with Jeroboam II, giving Israel and Judah their greatest periods of prosperity. The Lord struck Azariah with leprosy because he offered incense in the temple (see 2 Chr. 26:16-20). He shared his rule with his son Jotham.

Zechariah to Pekah (15:8-31). After Jeroboam's death his kingdom deteriorated rapidly. Zechariah ruled for six months and was killed by Shallum. This ended Jehu's dynasty in the fifth generation as the Lord had foretold (10:30). Shallum ruled only one month before he was assassinated in the ruthless coup of Menahem from Tirzah.

Menahem held his crown for ten years (752-742 b.c.). He paid tribute to the Assyrian monarch, Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 b.c.), called by his Babylonian throne name "Pul" in the Bible. The annals of Tiglath record the heavy taxation Menahem endured.

Pekahiah inherited his father's policies of appeasement toward Assyria. After a two-year reign (742-740 b.c.), the commander of Israel's armies, Pekah, engineered an anti-Assyrian coup, murdering the king. (The name Pekah is a shortened form of the name Pekahiah.) His reign was twenty years (752-732 b.c.). Perhaps during this period Pekah ruled from Gilead independently of the Samarian regime until the death of Pekahiah. Eventually the anti-Assyrian policy of Pekah failed when Tiglath annexed portions of Israel and deported its citizens. Hoshea usurped the throne with the backing of Assyria (see 17:1-6).

Jotham (15:32-38). Jotham, who coreigned with his father, Azariah, ruled for sixteen years (750-732 b.c.). His reign pleased the Lord, except that he left the high places for sacrifice. Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Aram collaborated to threaten Jotham at the end of his rule. The prophets Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah were his contemporaries.

Ahaz (16:1-20). Ahaz (735-715 b.c.) was one of the most wicked of kings in Judah's history. He committed the horrible atrocity of human sacrifice and promoted the practice of sacrifice at the high places (see 2 Chr. 28). Ahaz inherited the political problems of his father. The coalition of Rezin and Pekah marched against Jerusalem to force Judah to join in their war against the encroaching armies of Assyria. But Ahaz, against the counsel of the prophet Isaiah (see Isa. 7:1-17), sought the aid of Tiglath-Pileser and bought his intervention with the temple and royal treasuries. Assyria's war resulted in the capture of Damascus (732 b.c.), the humiliation of Samaria (15:29), and the vassalage of Ahaz to Tiglath.

To comply as a dutiful vassal, Ahaz replaced the bronze altar of the Lord in the temple with a replica of the Assyrian altar Tiglath erected in Damascus. He also removed other features of the temple which were offensive to the Assyrian monarch.

Hoshea (17:1-41). Hoshea's (732-722 b.c.) pro-Assyrian policies (15:30) had saved Samaria, but it was at the high cost of vassalage to Tiglath and his son Shalmaneser V (727-722 b.c.). Hoshea tested Shalmaneser's strength and recruited the aid of So, king of Egypt. Hoshea was imprisoned, and Samaria endured a three-year siege led by Shalmaneser and completed by his brother Sargon II (722-705 b.c.). Samaria's destruction in 722 b.c. sounded the end of the northern state of Israel.

While secular history gives political and military causes for a nation's demise, the inspired historian gave religious reasons for the fall of Samaria. The lengthy commentary on Israel's sins exonerated God but also warned Judah not to imitate their northern kin.

Israel sinned against the Lord and disregarded the warnings of the covenant made with their fathers. They made the golden calves of Jeroboam, erected the Asherah pole, committed human sacrifices, worshiped the stars, and practiced sorcery. The Lord removed Israel from the land because they sinned like the Canaanites whom the Lord had removed before them.

Through a policy of resettlement, the Assyrians subjugated the conquered nations of their empire. The nations transplanted in Samaria worshiped the Lord in name but also worshiped their own national deities. Their mixed worship alienated them from the Jews (Ezra 4:1-3; John 4:4-9,39-40).

Survival and Final Days of Judah (18:1-25:30)

The final section of Kings traces the survival of Judah after Samaria's collapse. From the perspective of the biblical writer, the reigns of Hezekiah and Josiah brought sweeping moral and religious reforms which prolonged Judah's existence for another hundred years. However, this period also saw Judah's most wicked king, Manasseh (chap. 21). Because of Manasseh's heinous sins, Jerusalem fell under God's final judgment of expulsion.

Hezekiah (18:1-37). The account of Hezekiah's career is also recorded in 2 Chronicles 29-32 and Isaiah 36-39. The three sources do not always give a sequential chronology of the events in his reign since the authors gave a thematic presentation of his career.

Hezekiah, unlike his father, Ahaz, trusted the Lord throughout his reign (715-686 b.c.) and introduced radical reforms by removing the high places, destroying idolatrous symbols, and centralizing worship in Jerusalem. Although he inherited vassal status from Ahaz, Hezekiah rebelled against Sargon (see Isa. 20:1) and his successor Sennacherib. The sacred historian gave Hezekiah the highest commendation (2 Kgs. 18:5).

The account of Sennacherib's invasion is also told in Isaiah 36-37. When Sennacherib became king (705-681 b.c.), Hezekiah, with the encouragement of Egypt, rebelled against Assyria. Sennacherib responded (701 b.c.) by surrounding Jerusalem. The Assyrian's annals report that he had Hezekiah caught "like a bird in a cage." Hezekiah paid a handsome tribute, but it did not appease Sennacherib for long.

Sennacherib sent a delegation from his headquarters in Lachish to negotiate a surrender. The Assyrians ridiculed Hezekiah's dependence on Egypt and his hope in the Lord. They addressed Hezekiah's representatives in Hebrew, refusing to speak in the Aramaic language of diplomacy so that the people of Jerusalem would understand their threats.

God Delivers Jerusalem (19:1-37). When Hezekiah heard the report of the Assyrians' threats, he consulted Isaiah for a word from the Lord. Through the prophet the Lord promised to deliver Hezekiah by a rumor that would distract the Assyrians. Meanwhile, Sennacherib's attention had turned to the fortress of Libnah and the approach of an Egyptian army led by Tirhakah. Sennacherib sent a letter, threatening Hezekiah a second time not to ally himself with the Egyptians.

Hezekiah took the letter before the Lord and prayed for God's deliverance, knowing that the Lord alone could save him. Isaiah announced the Lord's response, prophesying the salvation of Jerusalem and end of Sennacherib's reign. That night the Lord slaughtered the armies of Assyria, forcing Sennacherib's retreat to Nineveh. Several years later, as the Lord had foretold, Sennacherib's sons assassinated him in an effort to save their crumbling kingdom.

God Heals Hezekiah (20:1-21). Hezekiah became deathly ill, and the Lord sent Isaiah to tell the king to prepare to die. But Hezekiah prayed earnestly, and the Lord through the prophet Isaiah promised to prolong Hezekiah's life for fifteen years. The Lord encouraged the king by a sign, causing the shadow of the king's sundial to move backward ten steps. The thanksgiving hymn of Hezekiah is preserved in Isaiah 38:9-20.

Merodach-Baladan, the king of Babylon (721-710 b.c.), sent a delegation to congratulate Hezekiah for his recovery. Merodach-Baladan is known from ancient annals as Marduk-apla-iddina II, a chieftain of southern Chaldea who led a successful rebellion against Sargon. Although recounted in Kings after Sennacherib's invasion (chap. 19), his visit actually occurred before.

Merodach-Baladan sent envoys to learn of Judah's strength and lure Hezekiah into an alliance. Isaiah condemned Hezekiah for his sinful pride in openly displaying his treasuries. The prophet continued with a divine oracle in which he prophesied that Judah's treasures and people would be carried away to Babylon (see 25:21b).

Manasseh and Amon (21:1-26). Remarkably, Hezekiah bore a son (Manasseh) who would undo all that he had achieved in turning Judah back to God. During his fifty-five year reign (697-642 b.c.), the longest in Judah's history, Manasseh committed every pagan atrocity. The historian remarked that Judah "did more evil than the nations the Lord had destroyed before the Israelites" and blamed Manasseh for the eventual fall of Jerusalem (21:12-15; 22:16-17; 24:3-4). Although Manasseh experienced a short imprisonment in Assyria (2 Chr. 33:10-13), Assyrian records show that he was loyal for most of his reign.

Such wickedness yielded the fruit of more violence. Amon (642-640 b.c.), the son of Manasseh, was assassinated by palace officials after only two years on the throne.

Josiah (22:1-20). Josiah (640-609 b.c.) began to reign at age eight after the assassination of his father. In his eighteenth year of reign (621 b.c.), Josiah initiated repairs on the temple Manasseh and Amon had neglected. The high priest Hilkiah recovered the book of the law among the rubble of the temple.

When the book was read before the king, he feared the Lord's wrath and sent a delegation to the prophetess Huldah to inquire of the Lord concerning Judah's fate. She prophesied that the Lord would destroy Judah for its idolatry but that Josiah would not witness it because he had repented. Scholars generally agree that this "book" was Deuteronomy or some part of it.

Josiah's Reforms and Death (23:1-30). Josiah renewed the covenant with the Lord and celebrated the Passover in an unprecedented way. He removed all evidence of pagan worship and centralized worship in Jerusalem. As the prophet had predicted (1 Kgs. 13:32), Josiah tore down the shrine at Bethel, which Jeroboam had erected three centuries earlier. The biblical writer gave Josiah the highest commendation of all the kings: "Neither before nor after Josiah was there a king like him who turned to the Lord as he did." Jerusalem enjoyed a national revival under Josiah. However, it came to a crashing halt when the king was killed at Megiddo by Pharaoh Neco. Josiah had attempted to block Neco's efforts to aid the faltering Assyrians in their last stand against Nebuchadnezzar's Babylonian armies.

Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim (23:31-37). Necho deposed Jehoahaz, Josiah's son, after only three months and imprisoned him in Egypt. He set up in his place another son of Josiah, the puppet king Jehoiakim, also called Eliakim (609-598 b.c.).

Jehoiachin and Zedekiah (24:1-20). The balance of power turned to the Babylonians in 605 b.c. when Nebuchadnezzar defeated the combined armies of Egypt and Assyria at Carchemish in North Syria. After three years of vassalage to Nebuchadnezzar (605-602 b.c.), Jehoiakim attempted an insurrection that failed. Jehoiakim resisted the word of the Lord by burning Jeremiah's scroll that foretold Judah's subjugation to Babylon (Jer. 36:29). The historian attributed Judah's continued subservience to the wickedness of Manasseh, whose reign grieved the Lord.

Jehoiachin, Jehoiakim's son, was eighteen when he ascended the throne at his father's death (598 b.c.). He too rebelled, and Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem. He deposed the young king after only three months (see Jer. 52:31-34). At that time the temple and palace were stripped (see 2 Kgs. 20:17), and the king's household as well as the city's leading citizens were exiled (see Jer. 22:24-30). Nebuchadnezzar installed Matta-niah, Jehoiachin's uncle, as king and renamed him "Zedekiah."

Destruction of Jerusalem (25:1-30). Zedekiah (597-586 b.c.), in spite of Jeremiah's warnings (see Jer. 37-39; 52), led a final rebellion against the Babylonians in 588 b.c. After a lengthy siege and resulting famine, the city fell in July 586 b.c. Zedekiah fled but was captured and taken to Nebuchadnezzar's headquarters in Riblah. There Zedekiah witnessed the execution of his sons before he was blinded and led to Babylon for imprisonment Nebuzaradan, the Babylonian commander, raided the city, confiscated the temple furniture, and burned Jerusalem to the ground (25:8-21). Gedaliah was appointed governor but was assassinated in an anti-Babylonian coup. For fear of Babylonian reprisals, many of the Jews fled to Egypt.

The final paragraph of the book indicates how the sacred historian responded to the catastrophe. He saw in the improved conditions of King Jehoiachin's imprisonment a message of hope. Babylon's ruler, Evil-Merodach (561-560 b.c.), released Jehoiachin from prison and placed him under house arrest, where he drew a royal stipend from the Babylonian treasury (25:27-30). Although Jerusalem was no more, Israel still had its king. If God so pleased, Judah could be restored to its land.

Ethical and Theological Significance. Again and again 2 Kings warns against the dangers of compromise. Those who compromise their witness for selfish gain risk God's judgment. Gehazi's attempt to profit financially from Elisha's healing ministry is a stern warning to Christians that the gospel is not a "mask to cover up greed" (1 Thess. 2:5).

In 2 Kings dependence on other gods led to death for both individuals and nations. If our security rests on our own wealth or military might, we are trusting in a house built on sand (see Matt. 7:26). The failures of the kings of Israel and Judah remind Christians to fix their trust on God alone.

The kings of Israel and Judah often sought to preserve national security at the expense of their distinctive religious convictions. The people God freed from Egyptian slavery should have avoided political situations that compromised their freedom to worship their God. Baptists have championed a free church in a free state as the best setting for Christians to exercise their discipleship.

The tragic end of the nations of Israel and Judah demonstrates the awful consequences of sin. However, no catastrophe is so great that God cannot work through it to give hope to His people.

Questions for Reflection

1. What can be learned from 2 Kings about the holiness of God?
2. How should God's people live in a society that is wicked?
3. How can God's people have hope in the midst of social and political unrest?
4. What is spiritual revival? How does God respond to repentance and prayers for revival?
5. In what ways does God use wicked people or nations to achieve His purposes?

Sources for Additional Study

House, Paul. R. 1, 2 Kings. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995.

McNeeley, Richard I. First and Second Kings. Chicago: Moody, 1978.

Millard, Alan. 1 Kings-2 Chronicles. Ft. Washington, PA: Christian Literature Crusade, 1985.

Vos, Howard F. 1, 2 Kings. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.