Psalms
Share
Psalms
The Book of Psalms or Psalter is the hymnal of Israelite worship and the Bible's book of personal devotions. In it we not only find expression of all the emotions of life but also some of the most profound teaching in the entire Scripture.
Date and Authorship. The Psalter was not completed until late in Israelite history (in the postexilic era). But it contains hymns written over a period of hundreds of years. Many individual psalms are far older than the whole book.
Evidence of the Superscripts. A primary source of information regarding the date and authorship of individual psalms are the superscripts found above many psalms. According to these, some of the authors include David, the sons of Korah, Asaph, Moses, and Solomon. Other psalms, including some of the "Psalms of Ascent" (Pss. 120-134) and "Hallelujah" Psalms (Pss. 146-150) are anonymous. These titles, if taken at face value, would date many of the psalms to the early tenth century (psalms of David) and at least one to the fifteenth century (Ps. 90).
Meaning and Reliability of the Superscripts. Some scholars, however, question whether the superscripts are meant to ascribe authorship to the psalms. The phrase ledawid used frequently in the psalm superscripts could mean by David, but it also could mean for David. But most scholars would admit that the word means by David. There is no reason to think it is some kind of dedication.
A more serious question is whether the superscripts are reliable. Some scholars believe they were added at a late date and are no more than conjectures that have no real historical value. But there are good reasons to believe the superscripts can be trusted. Many of the psalm superscripts refer to incidents in the life of David about which Samuel and Chronicles say nothing. For example, the superscript of Psalm 60 mentions battles with Aram-Naharaim, Aram-Zobah, and Edom. It would be strange if, in the late postexilic period, rabbis invented this. Another example is the superscript of Psalm 7, which speaks of a certain "Cush the Benjamite" (he is mentioned here only in the OT). If the superscripts were late fabrications, one would expect that they would refer more to incidents from David's life mentioned in Samuel.
Many of the psalm titles contain technical musical terms, the meanings of which were already lost by the time the Old Testament was translated into Greek. For example, lammenasseah, "for the choir leader," is wrongly translated "to the end" in the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the Old Testament. A number of these terms are still not understood. Obscure or difficult words in the superscripts include: song titles ("Do Not Destroy"; "A Dove on Distant Oaks"; "The Doe of the Morning"; "Lilies"; "The Lily/ies of the Covenant"; and "Mahalath"); musical instruments or technical terms ("stringed instruments" and "Shemi-nith"); musical guilds or singers ("Asaph"; "Sons of Korah"; "Heman the Ezrahite"; "Ethan the Ezrahite"); and types of psalms ("Songs of Ascent," likely sung by those who were making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; maskil, possibly an instructional or meditative psalm; miktham; shiggayon).
Ancient terminology and references to old guilds and bygone events all imply that the titles are very old. This supports confidence in their reliability.
Davidic Authorship of Psalms. Many scholars have asserted that David did not write the psalms attributed to him. But there are no historical reasons why David could not have authored those psalms. David had a reputation as a singer and as a devoted servant of the Lord, and nothing in his life is incompatible with his being a psalmist.
One difficulty here is that some of the psalms of David seem to refer to the temple (for example, 27:4), which did not exist in his day. But terms like "House of the Lord," "Holy Place," and "House of God" are regularly used of the tent of meeting and need not be taken as references to Solomon's temple (see Exod. 28:43; 29:30; Josh. 6:24; Judg. 18:31). Certainly David could have written the psalms attributed to him. Other psalms that mention the temple, however, are also ascribed to David (Pss. 5; 11; 18; 27; 29; 65; 68; 138). It is perhaps worth noting that New Testament writers ascribe none of these psalms to David.
The Date of the Psalms. Earlier critics dated many of the psalms late in Israel's history, some as late as the Maccabean period. For two reasons, however, this is no longer possible.
First, the Ugaritic songs and hymns show parallels to many of the psalms. The grammar and poetic forms are similar. The Ugaritic tradition of hymn writing is ancient (before twelfth century) and implies that many of the psalms may be ancient too.
Second, a fragmentary, second-cen-tury b.c. copy of the biblical collection of psalms was found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. This proves beyond doubt that the psalms were composed well before the second century b.c., since it must have taken a long time for the written psalms to be recognized as Scripture and for the psalter to be organized.
There is no reason, therefore, to date all the psalms late. Generally speaking, they can be dated to three broad periods: (1) Preexilic. This would include those psalms that are very much like the Ugaritic songs, the royal psalms, and those that mention the Northern Kingdom. (2) Exilic. This would include the dirge songs that lament the fall of Jerusalem and call for vengeance on the Edomites and others. (3) Early postexilic. This would include psalms that emphasize the written law, such as Psalm 119.
Compilation of the Psalms. Psalms divides into five sections or "books": (1) Psalms 1-41; (2) Psalms 42-72; (3) Psalms 73-89; (4) Psalms 90-106; (5) Psalms 107-150.
We have no precise information regarding the dates when the five books of the Psalms were compiled or what the criteria of compilation were. Psalm 72:20 implies that a compilation of David's psalms was made shortly after his death. In Hezekiah's time there were collections of the psalms of David and Asaph, which may account for the bulk of the first three books (2 Chr. 29:30). At a later date another scribe may have collected the remaining books of the Psalter. Psalms was put into its final form some time in the postexilic period.
The five books each close with a doxology, and Psalm 150 is a concluding doxology for the entire Psalter. But the numbering of the psalms varies. The Jerusalem Talmud speaks of 147 psalms. The Septuagint divides Psalms 116 and 147 into two psalms each but numbers Psalms 9 and 10 and Psalms 114 and 115 as one psalm each.
Types of Psalms. When studying a psalm, one should ask the following questions: (1) Was it sung by an individual or the congregation? (2) What was the psalm's purpose (praise, cry for help, thanksgiving, admonition)? (3) Does it mention any special themes, such as the king and the royal house, or Zion? By asking these questions, scholars have identified a number of psalm types.
Hymns. In this type of psalm, the whole congregation praises God for His works or attributes (Ps. 105). Six subcategories of hymn are: victory songs, which praise God for His victories over the nations (Ps. 68); processional hymns, sung as the worshipers moved into the temple area (Ps. 24); Zion songs, which praise God and specifically refer to His presence in Zion (Ps. 48); songs of the Lord's reign, which begin with the words, "The Lord reigns" (Ps. 99); antiphonal hymns, chanted by either the priests or choir with the congregation responding antiphonally (Ps. 136); hallelujah hymns, which begin or end with "Praise the Lord!" ( hallelu Yah; Ps. 146).
Community complaints. In these psalms the whole nation voiced its complaints over problems it was facing, such as defeat in battle, famine, or drought (Ps. 74). A subcategory of this is the national imprecation, in which the people cursed their oppressors (Ps. 83).
Individual complaints. These psalms are like the community complaint except that they were prayers given by one person instead of the whole nation. The reason for the prayers might be that the individual was sick, hounded by enemies, or in need of confessing personal sin (Ps. 13). This type of psalm may include substantial imprecation or curses against the psalmist's personal enemies (Ps. 5). A subcategory is the penitential psalm, in which the speaker is dominated by the sense of his guilt (Ps. 51).
Individual songs of thanksgiving. In these psalms an individual praises God for some saving act. Usually it alludes to a time that the individual was sick or in some other kind of trouble (Ps. 116).
Royal psalms. These psalms deal with the king and the royal house. Subcategories include: wedding songs, sung at the marriage of the king (Ps. 45); coronation songs (Ps. 72); prayers for victory, chanted when the king went to war (Ps. 20); votive psalms, perhaps sung by the king at his coronation as a vow to be faithful and upright (Ps. 101).
Torah psalms. These psalms give moral or religious instruction (Pss. 1; 127). Subcategories include: testimony songs, in which the psalmist used his personal experience of God's salvation to encourage the hearer (Ps. 32); wisdom songs, in which the psalmist instructed the hearer more in practical wisdom similar to that in Proverbs than in the law (Ps. 49).
Oracle psalms. These psalms report a decree of God (Ps. 82). The content of the oracle is often divine judgment, and the psalm concludes with a prayer for God to carry out His decree. But see also Psalm 87, an oracle of salvation for the Gentiles.
Blessing psalms. In these psalms a priest pronounced a blessing upon the hearer(s) (Ps. 128).
Taunt songs. These psalms reproach the godless for their vile behavior and promise that their doom is near (Ps. 52).
Songs of trust. In these psalms the psalmist may face difficulty but remains assured of God's help and proclaims his faith and trust (Ps. 11).
When interpreting a psalm, it is important first to determine what kind of psalm it is. In this way one can see how the psalmist intended it to be read.
Psalm 1
To avoid walking, standing, and sitting with the wicked is simply to avoid participation in their way of life. "Streams" in 1:3 is best translated as "irrigation canals." The streams of Palestine regularly dried up, but the irrigation canals that came off the great rivers never did.
Psalm 2
The covenant of David underlies this psalm. The Davidic king is the Lord's anointed (Messiah) and receives the whole world as His domain. All the peoples of the earth are warned to submit to Him. The royal house of Judah obviously never ruled the whole world; the fulfillment is in the greater Son of David, Christ. He is God's Messiah, who was crucified by the rulers of this age (Acts 4:25-26), the Son of God (Ps. 2:7; Matt. 3:17), and the King with an iron scepter (Ps. 2:9; Rev. 2:27). The phrase "Kiss the Son" is unusual in that it is in Aramaic, not Hebrew. The Septuagint reads, "Lay hold of instruction." (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 3
David's prayer for victory over his enemies is more than a plea for himself. It is also a prayer for his people, over whom God made him king.
Psalm 4
The psalmist called for God to hear him but then turned to address those who doubted or rejected God. He warned them to abandon idols, to be warned that God watches over His own, to meditate in silence and without anger, and to worship and trust the Lord. He then proclaimed his confidence in God.
Psalm 5
The righteous are outraged by the behavior of the wicked and wait for God to act. This psalm progresses in five stanzas: (1) an opening call for God to hear, (2) an affirmation of God's hatred of evil, (3) a resolution to serve God and a prayer for help, (4) a prayer for the destruction of the wicked, and (5) a prayer for the protection of the righteous.
Psalm 6
David wrote this psalm when his enemies had him in a desperate situation. He protested that he would be cut off from Israel's worship if he were killed. But he concluded in confidence that God would help him.
Psalm 7
At a time of conflict, David was driven to see whether or not he was at fault. His protests of innocence did not stem from pride or refusal to acknowledge guilt but from the insight that he could not expect God to help him if he were as guilty as those who opposed him.
Psalm 8
God is praised as Creator and for having given humanity such a high place in creation. Verse 2 literally reads, "From the mouths of children and babies you have established strength." Matthew 21:16, following the Septuagint, has "praise" instead of "strength." In either case the paradox is that God puts His enemies to shame by infants (see 1 Cor. 1:18-25).
Psalm 9
In the Septuagint, Psalms 9 and 10 form one psalm. Since the two together form an acrostic, they may well have been originally a single psalm. They were probably separated at an early date to make Psalm 10 an individual complaint psalm. Psalm 9 also has a complaint, but the overall tone is thanksgiving and certainty of victory. David saw in his personal victory a type of God's triumph in the last judgment.
Psalm 10
In every age believers are dismayed at the impunity of the violent, the criminal, the vile, and the ungodly. But God remains the hope of the hopeless. He knows our troubles.
Psalm 11
The psalmist was aware of the power of evil men but rejected all counsel of despair. He awaited judgment from God. Seated on His throne, God is in control.
Psalm 12
Truth is trampled underfoot in a corrupt society, and words are only tools of self-interest. But the certain word of God, given in an oraclelike response in 12:5, contrasts with the empty words of people.
Psalm 13
David's trials were such that he wondered how long he could hold on. But trials produce endurance, and the outcome is joy and singing.
Psalm 14
God sees the folly and vice of those who live as though He did not exist and declares His anger at those who abuse His people. To treat people as objects of plunder is to be a practical atheist and to invite judgment.
Psalm 15
Only those who are morally qualified may dwell with God. Anyone who would claim to be God's must be free of slander and greed.
Psalm 16
Security comes only by trust in the one true God rather than in the many false gods. "Libations of blood" could refer to ceremonies involving human sacrifice or ceremonies in which some blood was poured out and the rest was drunk. Peter cited 16:8-11 and interpreted it as a prophecy of the resurrection in Acts 2:25-31.
Psalm 17
David asserted his innocence as a prerequisite to his prayer for deliverance from his enemies. He did not claim sinless perfection in 17:3-5, nor did he deny the universal sinfulness of humanity. But he understood that he could not expect God to save him from his enemies if he cherished deceit or violence in his own life.
Psalm 18
As the superscript says, David gave thanks for the many victories God had given him. In 18:7-15 David described the fury of the Lord in terms reminiscent of the Sinai appearance. Similar language is also found in the ancient Canaanite texts from Ugarit in Syria. David saw his salvation not as personal or private but claimed that God moved heaven and earth—that He set His great power in motion—to save him. God's vindication of David extends to his whole dynasty and thus to the Messiah.
Psalm 19
God's revelation through nature and through Scripture each have their place. The natural world gives plain evidence of the glory and power of God (see Rom. 1:19-20). The law, however, goes beyond that and instructs and revives the human heart.
Walking in this light, the believer is moved to seek divine forgiveness and approval.
Psalm 20
The king's victory depended not on his cavalry but on his piety and the power of God. All his people would rejoice to see him return in triumph.
Psalm 21
Because God had established the Davidic king, the king trusted Him for victory as he went out to meet his foes. The total victory of the king anticipates the messianic judgment.
Psalm 22
This psalm follows the pattern of many individual complaint psalms in that it begins with a cry for help and concludes in assurance of deliverance with a promise to fulfill vows. The triumphant conclusion is unusually long. David's situation is a type of the sufferings and resurrection of Christ. The psalm anticipates Christ's outcry from the cross (Matt. 27:46), the mockery He received (Luke 23:35), His pain and thirst (John 19:28), the piercing of His hands and feet, and the casting of lots for His clothes (John 19:23-24). But it also looks forward to His victory and the coming of people from all nations to submit to Him. (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 23
The pastoral serenity of the psalm has made it a favorite of generations of readers. Verse 6 contains an implicit promise of eternal life.
Psalm 24
Worshipers may have chanted this hymn as they entered the temple. Verses 3-6 list the qualifications for entering God's congregation. The hymn may have been antiphonal, with the congregation asking the questions and the priest or choir chanting the body of the psalm.
Psalm 25
Once again David prayed for deliverance, but here he confessed his sinfulness rather than protested his innocence. He desired his forgiveness to take the concrete form of salvation from personal foes. The overall tone of the psalm is of confident assurance in God's mercy. The psalm is acrostic.
Psalm 26
Although this psalm is in the form of a "negative confession" (see Job 31), it is not a prideful boast on the psalmist's part (as in Luke 18:11-12). Rather, it teaches the kind of life one must follow to be a part of God's assembly.
Psalm 27
True righteousness is above all love for God and the joy of worship. The one who so loves God is secure even in the tribulations of life because he or she is accepted in the arms of God.
Psalm 28
The psalmist prayed for mercy for himself even as he prayed that God would punish evildoers. This came not from selfishness but a profound sense of right and wrong. For those who hate Him to go unpunished would be a perversion of God's justice.
Psalm 29
A terrible storm displays the power of God. The thunder and rain (29:3), lightning, and wind all speak of His power. It provokes His people to praise.
Psalm 30
God's anger against His children is for only a moment, but His favor is forever. David confessed, "Thou hast drawn me up" like a bucket from a well. David proclaimed the danger of complacency and the value of prayer.
Psalm 31
David professed his confidence in God and only then voiced his complaint. He mixed his appeal with trust and concluded in praise and encouragement for others. Compare 31:5 to Luke 23:46; the sufferings of David typify the sufferings of Christ. David prayed that the wicked might lie silent in the grave so that they could no longer slander him. (See "Vengeance and Vindication in the Psalms.")
ARTICLE: Vengeance and Vindication
Sensitive readers of the Psalms have long been troubled by the harsh expression of vengeance uttered by psalmists, often attributed to David himself. Take for example the statements: "Break the arm of the wicked and evil man: call him to account for his wickedness" (Ps. 10:15); "Let the wicked be put to shame and lie silent in the grave" (Ps. 31:17); "Break the teeth in their mouths .... The righteous will be glad when they are avenged, when they bathe their feet in the blood of the wicked" (Ps. 58:6-10). Such unloving statements raise serious ethical questions about the vindictive spirit reflected in these statements. Other prominent curses are found in Psalms 3:7; 5:10; 28:4; 35; 40:14-15; 55; 69; 79; 109; 137; 139:19-22; 140:9-10. Attempts to explain such fierce expressions fall into several categories.
First, some think that these curses only reflect the humanity of the author expressing his deepest desires for vindication when wronged by the wicked. Thus, he was reflecting a lower standard of morality than that found in the New Testament. This explanation does not adequately account for the fact that the verses in which these curses occur are inspired by the very God who taught the virtue of turning the other cheek. We must also recognize that 1 Samuel portrays David in a very different light. Although provoked almost beyond imagination, David did not respond vengefully but by tolerance and patience. The occasions on which David refused to kill his mortal enemy Saul provide eloquent testimony to this. Furthermore, Leviticus 19:18 forbids any attempt to exact vengeance against personal enemies, arguing against interpreting these curses as personal vendettas.
Second, another explanation sees the curses as only predictions of the enemy's ruin rather than as expressions of the psalmist's desire that the enemy meet an unhappy end. But Psalm 59 is clearly a prayer to God in which the psalmist asks God to wreak havoc on his enemies.
A plausible understanding of these difficult sayings must take account of the significant role enemies play in the Book of Psalms. Their presence goes far beyond the relatively limited number of psalms that curse the psalmist's enemies. The psalmists were often kings or represented the king in some official capacity. God mandated Israel's king to rule over God's covenant people in order to safeguard them and all God had promised to do through them.
Thus, any threat to God's people was also a threat to the very promise of God. In this unique situation, to oppose the God-anointed king was to oppose God Himself. So the king/psalmist prayed that God would judge those evildoers who intended to hinder the work of God, desiring that God and His work on earth would be vindicated.
Because of the unique position held by the king as God's anointed, he represented God's will in a measure unlike that of anyone today. For this reason believers today must not pray curses, for they are not in a position like that of the king/psalmist in ancient Israel.
Psalm 32
The theme and lesson of the psalm is followed by a personal testimony to its truth and further encouragement and exhortation. Paul cited 32:1-2 in Romans 4:7-8. Forgiveness is by God's sovereign mercy, and righteousness comes from faith in Christ rather than by human effort. At the same time, those who genuinely confess live in true obedience rather than mule-headed stubbornness.
Psalm 33
After an opening exhortation to praise the body of the hymn is taken up with the reasons God should be praised. God's power in creation merges into His sovereign control of human history. National security is in the Lord, not in military power. A communal profession of trust and a prayer conclude the psalm.
Psalm 34
This psalm is an acrostic. Its primary purpose is to teach the hearer moral lessons about God. The personal testimony is in 34:4-6. The rest of the psalm is made of theological proverbs. The theme is God's continuous care for His own. The psalm does not say that the righteous have no troubles but that God delivers them from their troubles.
Psalm 35
In this prayer David called down curses on his enemies for their treachery and malice. Above all, David condemned false friendship and ingratitude. The angel of the Lord appears in the psalms only here and in 34:7. (See "Vengeance and Vindication in the Psalms.")
Psalm 36
This psalm is an "oracle" (a word usually used of prophetic utterances) on the nature of human sin. The wicked continue to love evil even though they too depend on God, the Creator, for life. But their fate is sure.
Psalm 37
The righteous should not be dismayed over the apparent prosperity of the wicked, for it is fleeting. This psalm, like many passages in Proverbs, reinforces this truth through descriptions of the kindness of the righteous, the fierceness of the wicked, and their respective fates. In addition, it uses personal observation and exhortation.
Psalm 38
David confessed his sin, described his pain, and complained about his false friends and gloating enemies. The wounds and sickness he mentioned were literal and not symbolic. His isolation and silence were like that of Christ in the passion (see Isa. 53:7 and Mark 14:61). In his pain he saw that his only help was God. (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 39
The meditative silence of a righteous man pondering the brevity of life gives this psalm a quality of distress like that of Job 7. He had been afflicted by God and longed for restoration. He could never again be secure in his possessions and mortal life, for he now saw how transitory they were.
Psalm 40
This psalm, which begins like an individual song of thanksgiving, becomes a cry for help in 40:9-17. David believed that God would save him again as He had before. Hebrews 10:5-10 cites Psalm 40:6-8 and interprets it as Christ's fulfillment and abolition of the Old Testament sacrificial system. The Hebrew phrase "you have dug ears for me" in 40:6 is difficult. The verb "dug" is often translated "pierced" as in the ritual of Exodus 21:6. But that is unlikely since a different verb is used there and only one ear was pierced. It probably means you opened my ears in the sense you made me obedient (see Isa. 50:5; Jer. 6:10). The Septuagint, followed by Hebrews 10:5, has "a body you have prepared for me."
Psalm 41
The malice and hypocritical love of his enemies continues to dominate David's psalms of complaint. As in Psalm 38, he spoke here of his own sin and illness. And again David's isolation in suffering, typical of the righteous, was prophetic of the Messiah's affliction (see John 13:18). (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 42
The exact nature of the psalmist's distress is not given, but it brought him to a state of deep depression. Yet he focused not on his trouble but on God and thirsted for God as for water (Matt. 5:6).
Psalm 43
Psalms 42 and 43 may have originally been a single psalm. The thought and language of the two are very similar (compare 43:5 to 42:5,11), and the Hebrew meter is the same. Also Psalm 43 has no superscript.
Psalm 44
God's present abandonment of the nation contrasts with His former mighty presence among them. With remarkable boldness the people call on God to fight for them again.
Psalm 45
The composition celebrates the wedding of a king of the house of David. Psalm 45:1-9 praises the king, and 45:10-17 instructs and praises the princess-bride. Christians have long seen here an image of Christ and the church (compare 45:6-7 to Heb. 1:8). (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 46
The kingdom of God is like a mighty fortress against which the waters, which here as often in Psalms represent chaos and death, have no power. The psalm looks forward to the eternal reign of God in the new earth but celebrates the present reign of God in this troubled world.
Psalm 47
Someday, the psalm promises, even the Gentile nations will come and worship the God of Abraham. This has been completely fulfilled in Christ's church.
Psalm 48
The psalm praises Jerusalem as a type of visible manifestation of the reign of God. The city was glorious and awesome and God made it secure. There God's people think on His love.
Psalm 49
This psalm draws on themes used extensively in Ecclesiastes. Among these are the transitory nature of life (Eccl. 3:18-21) and the limitations of learning and wealth (Eccl. 2:15-16; 5:8-17). Psalm 49:15 is a clear promise of the resurrection.
Psalm 50
God here judges the world in a way very similar to the judgment described in Matthew 25:31-46. He accepts the righteous but not because of their sacrificial animals, for which God has no need. He then exhorts them to true piety. The wicked are condemned for theft, adultery, and other sins.
Psalm 51
This profound plea for forgiveness was written, according to the superscript, after David committed adultery with Bathsheba and murdered her husband. "In sin my mother conceived me" (KJV) may mean that as David's mother and father were sinners, so was he. Or it may mean that he had been sinful from birth. It does not mean that the act of procreation was itself evil.
Psalm 52
The psalmist taunted a godless and cruel individual for his behavior and asserted that his end was near. He did not ask God to avenge his personal loss but claimed that the godless person would be destroyed for his arrogance and lying.
Psalm 53
This psalm is almost identical to Psalm 14.
Psalm 54
The treachery of the Ziphites is described in 1 Samuel 23:19-23; 26:1. As in other psalms, David was so certain of God's help that he vowed a thanksgiving offering.
Psalm 55
This is the strongest statement in the psalter on the cruelty of false friendship. In Psalm 11:1 the psalmist rejected counsel of flight, but here he was so discouraged by betrayal he longed for it.
Psalm 56
On the incident at Gath, see 1 Samuel 21:10-15. In structure this psalm is chiastic. (See the introduction to "Psalms.") Between the initial call for help and the concluding vow are two assertions of trust in God. At the center of the psalm is a call for deliverance from the enemy.
Psalm 57
Praying for help changes the psalmist's attitude from despair to exultant confidence. Surrounded by persons of animal violence, he could sing out joyfully to God.
Psalm 58
The evil of those who misuse their power for personal gain is here graphically portrayed. They are evil from birth, incorrigible snakes, and ravenous as lions. Their deaths will be as little lamented as that of a slug in the sun. Faith in God is vindicated when they are destroyed.
Psalm 59
People are instructed when God makes an example of the wicked. This is brought about not by their sudden death but by their gradual and visible demise. In this their true character as wild dogs destined for an ignoble death is clear to all.
Psalm 60
This psalm is a prayer for victory in battle, but it complains of God's apparent abandonment of His people. God's election of Israel contrasts with His rejection of its neighbors. Shechem and Succoth were on opposite sides of the Jordan and together represent God's (that is, Israel's) ownership of the entire territory.
Psalm 61
Many seek sanctuary from the weariness and struggles of life. But that asylum is found only in the Rock that is higher and stronger than any human. The prayer for the king to have an eternal reign is fulfilled perfectly in the Son of David, Christ.
Psalm 62
Trust in God and Him alone. He is like a fortress in that He protects against all who are hostile. People will fail (the Hebrew text reads, "Humans are worthless [as an object of trust]; people are a lie"). Riches are no security. A numeric saying, familiar in wisdom literature, concludes the psalm (see Prov. 30:21-23).
Psalm 63
So profound was his love for God that even in a desert the psalmist longed for Him rather than water. The worship of God is better than the most delicious food. At night he thought on God rather than sleep (63:6). He stayed close to God in the knowledge that he was safe there.
Psalm 64
No one is capable of foreseeing and protecting himself or herself from all the plots of evildoers. Only God is a sufficient defense. He turns the schemes of the cruel and the criminal back on their own heads.
Psalm 65
This song may have been sung in the temple as part of a thanksgiving for a good harvest. The occasion of its singing may have been the Feast of Unleavened Bread at the beginning of the barley harvest or at Pentecost after the general harvest.
Psalm 66
After a general praise to God and thanks for His deliverance of Israel in the exodus the psalmist testified to his personal experience of God's grace. The historical experience of the whole community was repeated in the individual life of the believer.
ARTICLE: Christ in the Psalms
One of the most controversial questions facing interpreters of the Book of Psalms is how to understand the many references to the "king" or "anointed one" ( Messiah). Do these references speak of a human king of ancient Israel or point ahead to Jesus as the ideal King and Messiah?
The biblical writers wrote of real-life persons and situations. The king played a most prominent role in ancient Israel's national life. Over sixty references in the Psalms highlight the king's prestige. The original readers of the psalms naturally understood that these references spoke of the human king, whose role was so very important in their day-to-day existence. Because the basic meaning of any text is what the author intended the original audience to understand, "king" in the Psalms refers primarily to a human king of ancient Israel.
It may be possible for references to the "king" or "anointed one" to both speak of a human king and point ahead to Jesus as the ideal One.
The only clear passage that describes a human king in its Old Testament context who is seen as the ideal messianic King in a subsequent text is Psalm 2. (Hebrews 1:5 treats this psalm as explicitly messianic.) Thus the human king in Psalm 2 functioned as a type, that is, one who had significance in his own historical setting but who also served as a divinely ordained foreshadowing of someone in later biblical revelation.
Generally speaking, references to the king in Psalms speak of the human king in the biblical writer's time. Occasionally, reference to the king was originally understood as a human king but later applied to the ideal Messiah. In one psalm (Ps. 110) the king can mean none other than the ideal messianic King of kings.
The superscription of Psalm 110 portrays it as Davidic. Surprisingly, the first verse speaks of David's successor as his lord. In ancient Israel this was inconceivable. David was the greatest king, the standard by which his successors were measured. Early in Israel's history this passage was understood as a prophecy of the coming Messiah. Jesus interpreted Psalm 110:1 in this way in a dispute with the Pharisees (Matt. 22:41-45; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44). Jesus' rid-dle—If "David himself calls him 'Lord,' how can he be his son?"—captures the mystery of the incarnation. Jesus is the Son of David but also more than David's son (Rom. 1:3-4).
Psalm 67
The psalm is built upon the priestly blessing of Numbers 6:24-26.
Psalm 68
The people praised God for His protection of Israel and for the victories they had received. Israel's triumph over its enemies typified God's final triumph in Christ over all the powers. Paul cited 68:18 to that effect (Eph. 4:8).
Psalm 69
David typified the suffering of the righteous believer at the hands of the godless, but this concept finds its fullest expression in the travails of Christ (compare 69:9 to John 2:17 and Ps. 69:21 to Matt. 27:34,48). (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 70
Compare Psalm 40:13-17. The brevity of this psalm matches the urgency of its tone. It is a call to God in a desperate moment.
Psalm 71
The psalmist, aware that he was aging and his strength was failing, called on God to walk with him as he entered this period of life. Prior experience told him that God would continue to be faithful.
Psalm 72
The superscript should be translated For Solomon since 72:20 implies that the psalm was by David. The song is a prayer for Solomon's coronation. It is based on 2 Samuel 7 and typifies the messianic reign. God's king was to exhibit righteousness, justice, and concern for the poor and oppressed.
Psalm 73
The psalmist wondered how the wicked could impudently flaunt God's ways and thrive (see Job 21). He wondered if his piety had been for nothing. But he came to understand that God sustained him, not his own will, and that grace would lead him to eternal glory.
Psalm 74
The psalm was probably written shortly after the Babylonian exile began. The people mourned the destruction of the temple. Remembering God's triumph over chaos at creation (Gen. 1:2), they prayed for God to defeat the enemy that conquered them and to restore the order of the temple.
Psalm 75
God's determination to judge the earth and punish the wicked is certain. Verse 8 is a familiar prophetic image (see Isa. 51:17; Jer. 25:15-29; 49:12; 51:7).
Psalm 76
Victory over one of Israel's enemies portrayed here typifies the final victory of God over all earthly powers.
Psalm 77
Although voiced by an individual, these laments relate to the whole nation and not one person. Compare 77:16-19 to 74:13-17, which alludes to God's victory over the precreation chaos. Here the reference is to the exodus.
Psalm 78
This psalm recites the events of the exodus, as recorded in the law, and ties the continual rebellion of the Israelites to the secession of the Northern Kingdom (Ephraim) from the house of David.
Psalm 79
Like Psalm 74, this was apparently written in the Babylonian exile. Unlike the former lament, this psalm emphasizes the plight of the people rather than the destruction of the temple.
Psalm 80
This psalm again laments the Babylonian captivity and calls on God to remember His former election of Israel. The image of the vine reappears in the prophets (Isa. 5:1-7; Ezek. 15).
Psalm 81
This psalm begins like a hymn but moves to a long oracle of exhortation from God. It may have been sung at Passover or Tabernacles. Tabernacles was celebrated from the fifteenth of the month, at full moon.
Psalm 82
God accuses the "gods" of having misgoverned the world. The identity of these "gods" is hard to determine. Some interpret them as spiritual powers that rule the world and others as human judges. But these alternatives are not mutually exclusive. Probably the human powers are treated as the earthly counterparts to spiritual forces (see Col. 1:16). God has determined to judge the powers and rulers who maintain a world system of oppression and injustice.
Psalm 83
The psalmist listed the nations that he desired to see punished. The psalm likely was written sometime between 900 and 600 b.c., when Assyria was still a threat.
The psalm is not a mere cry for vengeance. Rather, it is a plea for the righteous God to demonstrate His sovereignty by defending His chosen people.
Psalm 84
The singer celebrates the joy of worship in God's house. The "valley of Baca" was apparently along the path the worshipers took to the temple.
Psalm 85
The problem the people faced is unclear. They prayed in an optimistic way, sure of God's help; for His love is unfailing.
Psalm 86
The psalmist based this appeal on the kindness and universal power of God.
Psalm 87
God has determined to bring even the Gentiles into His kingdom. "This one was born in Zion" means that the Gentile has been adopted into the covenant.
Psalm 88
The sage Heman "the Ezrahite" is perhaps the same as the son of Zerah in 1 Chronicles 2:6 (see 1 Kgs. 4:31). This psalm shows remarkable parallels to Job, especially in the psalmist's personal affliction and abandonment.
Psalm 89
Ethan the Ezrahite was possibly the brother of Heman (Ps. 88; see 1 Kgs. 4:31; 1 Chr. 2:6), but the psalm may have been written as late as the exile. It laments that although God made an eternal covenant with the house of David (see 2 Sam. 7), the dynasty now seemed abandoned.
Psalm 90
In this psalm the community called on God for mercy, but in the tradition of wisdom literature the song strongly emphasizes the shortness of human life.
Psalm 91
God extends the promise of protection to all who turn to Him. Contrary to Satan's interpretation (Matt. 4:6), Psalm 91:11-12 does not allow reckless behavior.
Psalm 92
In 92:10 "you have exalted my horn" means that God had given the singer victory. "Fine oils are poured upon me" means that God had lavished favor upon him. The image of the righteous person as a flourishing tree is common in the Bible (see Ps. 1).
Psalm 93
The permanence of the Lord's reign is the security of all who trust in Him. The pounding of the waves represents the power of death and destruction, but God's eternal regime controls all things. And as God's rule is eternal, so also are His statutes.
Psalm 94
Distress over the crimes of the wicked gives way to confidence in God's justice. The psalm calls for patience and endurance.
Psalm 95
Because God is sovereign over all, we must submit to His demand for obedience. Hebrews 3:7-4:11 expounds this psalm in detail. (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 96
The Lord God of Israel rules over all the earth, and all its peoples must bow to Him. This is the great missionary song of the Bible.
Psalm 97
The power of the Lord is awesome enough to melt even the mountains. Israel can rejoice that its God is greater than all idols and so-called gods. For His people, God's fury promotes not terror but joy.
Psalm 98
This psalm is a variant of Psalm 96 and follows the same missionary theme. All the world, not Israel alone, must submit to the Lord.
Psalm 99
The Lord of heaven and earth has chosen Israel as His people and from them has taken His priests and prophets. All the nations, therefore, should acknowledge Him as the sole God and worship at His mountain.
Psalm 100
The people may have chanted this psalm as they entered the temple or began their worship.
Psalm 101
In resolving to remain faithful to God, the psalmist especially pledged to keep himself from association with evil men and abide with the righteous. He knew how strong the influence of others could be.
Psalm 102
This psalm may have been written in the exile. The outcry of the psalmist is individual in perspective but concerns not a private problem but the destruction of Zion.
Psalm 103
The people praise God for His compassion and forgiveness of sins. Verses 14-18 imply the eternal life of the believer. We are not by nature immortal, but God does not abandon us to death.
Psalm 104
All creation testifies to the goodness and power of God. This psalm is based on Genesis 1:3-31.
Psalm 105
This psalm recites the history of the Israelites from the patriarchs to the exodus as a reason for praise. Note the positive tone of the song. Contrary to Psalm 106 (which covers the same history) the sins of Israel are not mentioned. These two psalms form a pair. Psalm 105 ends where Psalm 106 begins: "Praise the Lord!"
Psalm 106
This psalm praises God by reciting Israel's history from the exodus to the judges' time. God forgave many rebellions. Israel failed to believe at the Red Sea (Exod. 14:10-12). They complained about food in the wilderness (Ps. 106:13-15; Num. 11). Dathan and Abiram rebelled (Num. 16). Israel worshiped the golden calf (Exod. 32). They proved cowards at Kadesh-Barnea (Num. 14). Israel joined Moabite women in sexual sin and idolatry (Num. 25). Israel complained at Meribah (Num. 20:1-13). They accepted Canaanite ways (see Josh. 23) and repeated apostasy in the judges' time (Judg. 1:16).
Psalm 107
Those who have suffered and then have seen God's salvation all have reason to praise God. This includes homeless aliens; war captives; those punished for their sin with personal illness; and those who have encountered dangers on the sea, famine, and other afflictions.
Psalm 108
Verses 1-5 are from Psalm 57:7-11, and verses 6-13 are from Psalm 60:5-12.
Psalm 109
The massive curse on the enemy is founded not on personal vendetta but rather on a sense of justice. (See "Vengeance and Vindication in the Psalms.")
Psalm 110
This prayer for the Davidic king typologically portrays the glory of the ultimate Davidic King, the Messiah. He is a Lord above even His father David (Matt. 22:41-46) and a priest though not of the Levitical line (Ps. 110:4; Heb. 7:11-28). He is victor over all His enemies. (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 111
This general song of praise in acrostic form ends with the motto of biblical wisdom (see Prov. 1:7). Here we see the Old Testament proclamation of God's love and grace.
Psalm 112
This acrostic psalm develops the praise of the Lord entirely along the lines of wisdom literature. (Compare the fates of the righteous and wicked in Prov. 10:3-30).
Psalm 113
Compare this to the Song of Hannah in 1 Samuel 2:1-10.
Psalm 114
The congregation praised God for the exodus and conquest. The seas and mountains represent the apparently unconquerable earthly power opposed to Israel.
Psalm 115
This psalm mocks idols (and those who worship them) in the spirit of Isaiah 40:18-20 and 44:6-20.
Psalm 116
Compare 116:3 to Jonah 2:5, in another individual song of thanksgiving.
Psalm 117
Opening and concluding exhortations to praise the Lord envelop the reason He ought to be praised: His enduring love.
Psalm 118
An individual sang his thanks to God as the congregation responded with praise. Jesus took 118:22 as a prophecy of His rejection by the Jewish leaders (Matt. 21:42). (See "Christ in the Psalms.")
Psalm 119
This massive psalm is a song in honor of the law. It is in twenty-two eight-verse stanzas, which are organized in acrostic order. Each verse of each unit begins with the same letter. This made the psalm easier to memorize.
Psalm 120
The peace-loving psalmist was distressed at the slanders spoken against him but was certain that God would save him. Meshech was in Anatolia near the Black Sea, but Kedar was in Arabia. The psalmist did not literally live in these places. The names represent distant barbarian and pagan lands and picture his enemies.
Psalm 121
Pilgrims going to Jerusalem may have sung this prayer for safety in the journey. The dangers along the way—accidents, wild animals, robbers, heat stroke—are implied in 121:3-6. The "sun" and "moon" represent all the dangers of day and night. A safe trip is promised in 121:7-8.
Psalm 122
The pilgrims going up to Jerusalem here prayed for the security of the city and the house of David. The city was sacred because God's temple was there.
Psalm 123
The worshipers in the temple prayed on behalf of their nation. The touching metaphor in 123:2 vividly portrays the people's dependence on God.
Psalm 124
The people gave thanks for having escaped conquest at the hands of their enemies. The two images of a flood and a bird in a trap portray the helplessness they felt.
Psalm 125
The psalmist rejoiced in the enduring security of Zion and its people but prayed that God would provide just rulers. God's people were secure in Him but groaned because of the evil powers among whom they dwelt.
Psalm 126
This touching song may have been sung by the returnees from the Babylonian captivity. It is both a hymn of thanksgiving for restoration to Zion and a prayer for restored prosperity.
Psalm 127
This psalm acclaims the value of family life under God. Working to the point of fatigue for the sake of one's family is useless; it is better to trust God and be able to rest in His care and protection. When living in God's care, children are not a nuisance or a burden but a gift.
Psalm 128
This psalm may have been recited as a blessing upon a groom in a wedding ceremony. ("You" and "your" are masculine singular in Hebrew.) The prayer for sons, long life, and prosperity is natural in such a setting. The vine represents not only the wife's fruitfulness but also her cheerfulness (Judg. 9:13) and feminine beauty (Song 7:8).
Psalm 129
Israel had suffered mightily under the Egyptians, Philistines, Assyrians, Babylonians, and others; but it had survived. Its enemies were cursed with a prayer that they become as insubstantial and insignificant as dried grass on the housetops.
Psalm 130
The psalmist did not clarify the nature of his troubles or explicitly confess any sin. But he was aware of his sinfulness and need for grace. The closing could suggest this was not a private but a national complaint, but many psalms conclude with a prayer for Israel. The repetition of "more than watchmen wait for the morning" in 130:6 heightens the sense of longing.
Psalm 131
The psalmist testified to the tranquility of the one trusting God and exhorted others to trust as well.
Psalm 132
As the people prayed for the house of David and the temple, they cited God's promises.
Psalm 133
The image of brotherly unity being like the oil that runs down Aaron's beard is striking. Unity is God's gift and a sacred duty.
Psalm 134
This psalm exhorts the priests of the temple to praise God and blesses them for their service.
Psalm 135
This psalm praises the God of Israel for creation and the exodus and conquest. It mocks the foolishness of idol worshipers.
Psalm 136
Apparently the people responded, "His love endures forever" as the temple priests or choir chanted the body of the psalm. The psalm links the theme of creation to the exodus and conquest. Israel was God's new creation, as miraculous as the first creation.
Psalm 137
After the beautiful lament of 137:1-6, the reader is jolted by the astonishing ending to the psalm. This brutal blessing shows the Jews' anguish over what had happened to their nation. Other Jews (Daniel, Esther) learned God was with them in the exile.
Psalm 138
The so-called "gods" of 138:1 may have been supernatural beings who filled God's heavenly court, or the term may refer to pagan powers and rulers.
Psalm 139
David praised God for His omniscience and omnipresence. Verses 13-15 draw together the concepts that a person is formed in his or her mother's body and that humans are made from the clay of the earth (Gen. 2:7). Thus we, no less than Adam, are God's creation.
Psalm 140
David's enemies were out to trap him and especially used slander as their tool.
Psalm 141
By his willingness to suffer at the hands of the righteous, David showed that he was motivated by integrity and love for God rather than by a selfish desire for personal victory.
Psalm 142
This psalm follows the normal pattern for the Song of Individual Complaint: introductory affirmation of God's goodness, complaint and appeal, expectation of deliverance, and promise of praise.
Psalm 143
From beginning to end this psalm is an appeal to God. As part of his plea for help the psalmist also asked for instruction.
Psalm 144
The martial spirit of this prayer is tempered by the fact that the object of victory is not conquest or military honor but security for the people.
Psalm 145
Verses 3-7 stress the importance of passing from one generation to the next the tradition of what God has done.
Psalm 146
It was the duty of the ancient king to be the protector and advocate of the helpless, but many failed in this and instead became oppressors. But God cares for the oppressed, the hurting, and the abandoned. Compare this to Mary's "Magnificat" (Luke 1:46-55).
Psalm 147
The hymn alternates between praising God as Protector of Israel and as Creator.
Psalm 148
Heaven and earth and all that is in them are exhorted to praise God.
Psalm 149
Exuberant, joyful praise of God's people is the weapon by which they conquer all their enemies. Spiritual conflict requires spiritual weapons (see Eph. 6:10-18).
Psalm 150
The loud, joyful, and exultant tone of this psalm tells us something of the nature of Israel's worship. It could be solemn and grand without tedium or empty pomp. The psalm tells where, for what, how, and by whom the Lord is to be praised.
Theological Significance. The psalms help today's believers to understand God, themselves, and their relationship to God. The psalms picture God as the Creator, who is worthy of praise and is capable of using His creative might to rescue His people from current distress. The psalms picture God as the just Judge of all the world, who rewards the righteous and opposes the wicked. Prayers that God curse the enemies of the psalmist must be understood in part as affirmations of God's justice and the certainty of His judgment. The psalms picture God as the faithful Friend of the oppressed. The psalms offer a refresher course in God's faithfulness throughout Israel's history. The psalms highlight God's promises to David and his descendants, promises that are not finally realized until Christ.
The psalms picture the full range of human emotions: joy, despair, guilt, consolation, love, hate, thankfulness, and dissatisfaction. The psalms thus remind us that all of life is under God's lordship. The psalms likewise illustrate the broad range of human responses to God: praise, confession, pleas for help, thanksgiving. The psalms thus serve as a source book for Christian worship, both public and private.
Questions for Reflection
- How can we use the Torah psalms and Wisdom psalms for personal growth?
- In what ways does the Davidic king in Psalms point forward to Christ?
- How can the hymns in Psalms be used to enhance our corporate worship?
- Do the psalms of complaint have any place in our prayer life today? If so, how are they to be used?
Sources for Additional Study
Alden, Robert L. Psalms. 3 Vols. Chicago: Moody, 1975.
Kidner, Derek. Psalms. 2 Vols. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1975.
Weiser, Artur. The Psalms. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962.
Wiersbe, Warren W. Meet Yourself in the Psalms. Wheaton: Victor, 1983.