Proverbs

Proverbs

In spite of its name, the Book of Proverbs is more than a collection of individual proverbs. Chapters 1-9 contain some lengthy discourses, and the book ends with a poem of praise for the virtuous woman (31:10-31). Nevertheless, a great deal of the book is taken up with the individual sayings and proverbs for which it is best known.

Proverbial Literature. Every culture has its own proverbs and traditional wisdom. In fact, the study of wisdom and proverbs was a favorite activity of ancient scribes and teachers. Writings that preserve this ancient wisdom have survived from Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece.

In ancient times collections of traditional wisdom were the textbooks for educating young men of aristocratic birth. Proverbs often implies that it was written for young men for a similar purpose. For example, the reader is frequently addressed as "my son" (2:1; 3:1,11; 4:1,10; 5:1; 6:1) and is warned to avoid prostitutes (5:3-6; 6:20-35). Although Proverbs can be profitably read by anyone, its interpretation is easier if we keep in mind the original audience for whom it was written.

Proverbs has other features in common with the wisdom writings of the other nations of the ancient Near East. Like them, it is very practical. It deals with ordinary matters of life more than with great philosophical concepts. Also its structure and organization are in many ways like the other wisdom writings, especially those from Egypt.

But Israelite wisdom is distinct from that of the other nations in its assertion that God is the starting point in the search for true wisdom: "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge" (Prov. 1:7; see 9:10; Ps. 111:10). From beginning to end, Proverbs deals with the practical concerns of an individual who knows God. It teaches the believer how to live. In this sense even when it deals with mundane issues, Proverbs is never "secular."

Forms of Wisdom Teaching. Even a casual reading of Proverbs reveals the many creative ways in which the book teaches its lessons. Proverbs is not only interesting to read, but its teachings are also memorable. Some of the major types of expressions follow:

Proverb. A proverb is a short, carefully constructed ethical observation (13:7) or teaching (14:1).

Admonition. An admonition is a command written either as a short proverb (16:3) or as part of a long discourse (1:10-19).

Numerical Saying. The numerical pattern lists items that have something in common after an introduction like, "There are six things, indeed seven" (see 6:16-19).

Better Saying. A better saying follows the pattern "A is better than B." See 21:19.

Rhetorical Question. A rhetorical question is a question with an obvious answer that still draws the reader into deeper reflection. See Proverbs 30:4.

Wisdom Poem. Wisdom poems or songs teach a series of moral lessons, as in 31:10-31. These poems are often acrostic.

Example Story. An example story is an anecdote meant to drive home a moral lesson (7:6-27).

Structure of Proverbs. Proverbs is actually a collection of several books:

The Proverbs of Solomon (Prov. 1-24). This work includes a title and prologue (1:1-7) and a main text divided into discourses (1:7-9:18), proverbial sayings (10:1-22:16), thirty "sayings of the wise" (22:17-24:22), and additional "sayings of the wise" (24:23-34).

The Proverbs of Solomon copied by the men of Hezekiah (Prov. 25-29). This collection has no prologue; it is simply an assortment of individual proverbs.

The sayings of Agur (Prov. 30). This collection has seven numerical sayings (30:7-9, 15a, 15b-16, 18-19, 21-23, 24-28,29-31) and several proverbs. Verses 2-9 could be regarded as a prologue.

The sayings of King Lemuel (Prov. 31). This two-part book concerns the duties of a king (31:2-9) and the praise of the virtuous woman (31:10-31).

1. Proverbs of Solomon (1:1-24:34)
2. Hezekiah Collection (25:1-29:27)
3. The Sayings of Agur (30:1-33)
4. The Sayings of Lemuel (31:1-31)

The Date and Authorship. The text says that the above four works are respectively by Solomon, by Solomon as edited by Hezekiah's scribes, by Agur, and by Lemuel as learned from his mother. This means that the bulk of Proverbs (1-29) is essentially from Solomon. Even so, many modern scholars believe that these collections came together long after Solomon. Some believe that Proverbs was not written until over five hundred years after Solomon, although others would date the collections to the late monarchy, some three hundred years after Solomon.

But no hard evidence exists that forces us to abandon the Bible's assertion that Solomon wrote most of the book. Some have argued that passages like Proverbs 8 are too advanced in thought to have come from Solomon. Yet other advanced and complex works of wisdom literature that are far older than Solomon's day appear in ancient Near Eastern texts. In addition, we read in the Bible that Solomon's reign was something of a flowering of wisdom in ancient Israel and that Solomon was at the head of its study (1 Kgs. 10:1-9). That being the case, it is not strange that the greatest Israelite wisdom literature should come from this period.

Agur and Lemuel may be pen names of someone otherwise familiar to us; more likely Agur and Lemuel were simply sages about whom we have no other information.

Since we do not know the identities of the writers, we cannot know the dates of composition. But there is no reason to date these sections very late. Also, although we cannot be sure when something like the present Book of Proverbs first appeared, the reign of Hezekiah (716-687 b.c.) may be a reasonable surmise (25:1).

Origin of the Individual Proverbs. To say that Solomon was the principal author of Proverbs is not to imply that he coined every single proverb in his sections. To the contrary, much of his work was as a collector of the "sayings of the wise" (22:17; 24:23). From whom did these proverbs come?

Certainly a primary source of Israelite wisdom was the family, where traditional teachings were handed down for generations. Proverbs frequently addresses its reader as "my son" and urges him to adhere to the teachings of his father and mother (for example, 1:8).

A second source was in the schools where scribes both compiled and composed wisdom literature. Many such scribes are known from Egyptian literature, and the Bible speaks of scribes and wise men in ancient Israel and Judah (Prov. 25:1; 1 Chr. 27:32; Jer. 18:18).

These men were not only the intellectual class of their day, but they also were the counselors 3>of the kings (Gen. 41:8). Solomon, as king, would have had close contact with such men in order to develop his own studies and writings (1 Kgs. 4:31,34).

It is easy to see, therefore, why Proverbs contains such a variety of types of teachings. The more homey and humorous proverbs may have come from the traditional teachings of the Israelite family (see 11:22 and 26:3). The more literary compositions show the influence of court scribes (1:20-33).

Proverbs of Solomon (1:1-24:34)

Title and Prologue (1:1-7). The prologue states the purpose for the work in 1:2-7. For the Israelites wisdom not only promoted a life of discipline and prudence, but it also enabled persons to unravel clever and mysterious sayings.

The heart of Israelite wisdom asserts that no one can begin to understand God's ways and life's mysteries apart from God's revelation (1:7). All human attempts at wisdom will ultimately fail.

Solomon's Discourses (1:8-9:18).

Discourse 1 (1:8-33). The teacher warns the young man not to abandon the teachings of father and mother for the sake of lawless companions. Those who accept this kind of peer pressure are on their way to death. Wisdom herself calls on all to learn of her. Those who reject the call have no excuse when disaster strikes.

Discourse 2 (2:1-22). The primary benefit of wisdom is the protection she gives. The two main dangers she saves her followers from are the crafty man and the adulterous woman. This again indicates that the book was originally written for young men.

Discourse 3 (3:1-35). Wisdom is more than a matter of knowing rules of right and wrong; it is a matter of knowing God. The wise trust in the Lord rather than in their own wisdom. They fear and honor Him and accept His discipline. The Lord, not just their awareness of certain principles, protects them.

Discourse 4 (4:1-27). This chapter has all the urgency of a father's appeal to his son. The plea is that the boy learn right from wrong and stay in the right path for all his life. "Wisdom is supreme; therefore get wisdom. Though it cost all you have, get understanding." It is as though father and son were in the marketplace and the father was urging the son to spend his money on wisdom rather than on anything else. The price is the son's whole life.

Discourse 5 (5:1-23). Here the father urges his son to avoid every form of promiscuity and be faithful to his own wife. Some may consider the emphasis on the dangers of adultery in these chapters of Proverbs to be excessive. But many go astray and warp their lives precisely here. A primary purpose of wisdom is to teach the reader to avoid self-destruction, and few things are more dangerous and yet so alluring as sexuality. Sexuality itself is not, however, an unhealthy or bad thing. Verses 15-19 eloquently celebrate the beauty and joy of sexual love in its proper place.

Discourse 6 (6:1-35). No one can live a peaceful life with financial chaos due to excessive debt. Proverbs urges diligence in labor and caution about entering into contracts and indebtedness. Again the book warns the young man to avoid both the devious man and the wanton woman. The numeric saying in 6:16-19 serves as an easy-to-remember rule of thumb for evaluating character. In the modern day 6:25 applies to pornography as well as to acts of adultery.

Discourse 7 (7:1-27). This chapter offends some readers on the grounds that it seems to attack women. The harlot, a woman, is presented as a deadly, wicked person whom the wise young man will avoid. But no similar warning is issued for the benefit of young girls. Nothing is said about lecherous men. Yet we must remember that the book was written for young men (see "Introduction"). That being the case, we would not expect similar warnings for girls. Verse 6 begins an example story in which the young man is taken in by the harlot and is on his way to destruction. He becomes a bird in a snare or an ox going to slaughter.

Discourse 8 (8:1-36). Wisdom calls out for young men to come to her. She both parallels and contrasts with the harlot, who likewise patrols the streets looking for young men. The difference is that wisdom leads young men to life, but the harlot takes them to the grave (compare 7:27 to 8:35). Wisdom is of more value than gold or jewels. More than that, she was present with God at creation. Nevertheless, she should not be interpreted in a mythological sense, as if she were a goddess, or in a Christological sense, as if she were Christ. Lady Wisdom is a personification, not a person (see also 8:12, where wisdom dwells with "prudence"; this too is a personification and not a second person). When the text says wisdom was there when God made heaven and earth, it means that wisdom is not some recent innovation. Principles of right and wrong are not human inventions but are embedded in the very fabric of the created order. Those who reject wisdom, therefore, are going against the very principles God built into the world and are on a path of self-destruction.

Discourse 9 (9:1-18). The lady wisdom contrasts with the woman folly. Once again we are dealing only with metaphoric personifications. Like vendors calling for customers to come to their shops, wisdom and folly invite the reader to choose which path to take. It is a decision of life and death.

Proverbs (10:1-22:16). Proverbs on labor, prosperity, and wealth (10:1-32). Wealth does have value as security from trouble, but riches wrongfully gained will not protect. Diligent workers enrich themselves, but lazy people irritate everyone. Above all, integrity and the Lord's blessing provide the most sure security. Several proverbs on the use of the tongue also appear in this chapter.

Proverbs contrasting the nature and destiny of the righteous and wicked (11:1-31). The righteous follow a clear path in life, are delivered from troubles, are generous, and strengthen their communities. The wicked hoard money but are not saved by it, are a curse to their families and communities, and face certain punishment.

Proverbs urging discernment in dealings with others (12:1-28). The wise know how to recognize and what to expect of various kinds of people. A good woman will help rather than weaken her husband, and a good man is kind even to his animals. The fool is always sure of himself, speaks without thinking, and is destroyed by his own lies. But the wise both listen and speak well.

Proverbs on life's realities (13:1-25). Things are not always as they seem. The wise must learn to look beneath the surface. Verse 23 does not sanction the plundering of the poor by the rich but shows a common tragedy in society.

Important lessons with touches of humor (14:1-35). Oxen require feeding, and no one enjoys cleaning up after them. But their strength makes farming much easier and leads to a better harvest. Sometimes we have to give up something for a greater gain. Verse 15 shows that gullibility should not be considered a Christian virtue!

Proverbs on teaching and instruction (15:1-33). The wise deal with a problem gently, lead people rightly, and will themselves listen to a rebuke. Fools only do harm when they speak and will not themselves listen to any admonition.

Proverbs on God's sovereignty over all of life (16:1-33). All our plans depend on God. Human government is also to be respected. No one is truly independent in life.

Proverbs on family life and relationships (17:1-19:29). In any family love is more important than riches. Parents and children are bound to each other by a common identity, although even a servant, if wise and faithful, can take the place of a disgraceful son. Family conflicts can go on forever, and bad relatives can ruin life. Many who would call themselves friends are merely attracted by money and power; they show their real character in dealing with someone who has neither. A faithful friend or relative is a protection from trouble, and a good wife is a gift from God.

Warnings against wrong choices (20:1-22:16). The Lord despises fraud, violence, a cold heart, and faithlessness. Drunkenness, laziness, poor investments, and pleasure seeking all lead to destruction. All things are in God's hands, and therefore the fear of God leads to a life worth living.

Thirty Sayings (22:17-24:22). Proverbs 22:17-23:14 contains striking parallels to the Egyptian Teachings of Amenemope. The Egyptian wisdom book appears to be older, which indicates that Solomon knew and used it. This is not surprising, since an Egyptian influence is seen throughout Solomon's writings. These "sayings of the wise" contain a number of proverbs on proper etiquette in the presence of the rich and powerful, with the warning that it is foolish to try to ingratiate yourself before such men (23:1-8).

Proverbs 23:15-24:22 resembles the discourses in the prologue. It again addresses the reader as "my son," encourages the pursuit of wisdom, and warns of the dangers of the immoral woman. This may have been the original conclusion to the Book of Solomon, with 24:23-24 being the equivalent to an addendum or appendix.

Additional Sayings (24:23-34). Proverbs 24:23-34 is a further collection of wise sayings. An example story on the danger of laziness appears in 24:30-34.

Hezekiah Collection (25:1-29:27)

Royal Etiquette (25:1-15). A proper understanding both of the king's role and of how to behave in his presence was essential for the courtier in ancient Israel. Prudence, discretion, and patience are essential for anyone who would deal with government authorities (see Eccl. 8:2-6).

Interpersonal Relations (25:16-27). The one who too frequently visits at a friend's house risks becoming an unwelcome sight. The one who does not know how to read a friend's mood will soon anger him or her. Sometimes the best way to win a conflict is to surprise an adversary with kindness.

Difficult People (25:28-26:28). Troublesome and difficult people are recognized by lack of self-control, dogmatic self-assurance, and laziness. They provoke conflict and are deceitful. They should never be honored and cannot be trusted. The apparent self-contradiction in 26:4-5 indicates many proverbs are general statements rather than invariable rules.

Faithfulness in Love (27:1-27). Sometimes true love may be hidden in a rebuke just as hatred may be hidden in a kiss. There is no love where there is no fidelity to one's wife and friends. True friends can improve each other's character, but nagging only irritates.

Need for Law (28:1-29:27). The powerful and wealthy often exploit the poor. Oppressors govern without benefiting the governed, know nothing of justice, amass fortunes by exorbitant interest, and ignore the needs of the poor. Lawlessness brings down societies and families, and people groan under oppressive rule. Governments should establish justice through law. But in the end justice comes only from God.

Sayings of Agur (30:1-33)

Title and Prologue (30:1-9). We must acknowledge our inability to understand the ways of God before we can accept revelation from God. Compare 30:4 with John 8:23. The prayer of Proverbs 30:7-9 is a clear example of the piety of the wise.

Various Teachings (30:10-33). The numerical saying in 30:18-19 is tied to the proverb in 30:20. An eagle in the sky, a snake on a rock, and a ship on the sea all have in common that they move without leaving any tracks. In the same way, those committing adultery assume they can do so without leaving a trace of what they have done.

Sayings of Lemuel (31:1-31)

Title and Prologue (31:1-9). Although these are the "sayings of King Lemuel," they actually come from his mother. This is one passage of Scripture, therefore, that we may confidently ascribe to a woman (see Exod. 15:21; Judg. 5).

Those in authority should not use their power for self-indulgence and depravity. Instead, they should devote themselves to defending the poor and the powerless.

The Virtuous Woman (31:10-31). This poem is an acrostic. Although the object of praise is the virtuous woman, the original audience of the piece was again the young man. The opening question in 31:10 implies that the reader ought to find such a wife for himself. The woman is trustworthy, industrious, intelligent, and kind. She adds dignity to the family and has much foresight and prudence. For all this she is much loved in her family and is the real center of the home. Above all she fears God. The final verse speaks eloquently against the tendency to regard her role as of inferior significance.

Theological Significance. Proverbs challenges believers, especially the young, to learn the lessons of past generations. It gives the practical implications of the confession that God is the Lord of all of life. The truly wise show respect for God and His standards in all life situations. Living faith can never be divorced from lives of faithfulness. Faith must be lived out in the day-to-day world where problems call for practical wisdom. How we relate to others serves as an indicator of our relationship with God.

Questions for Reflection

1. What does Proverbs mean by the "fool"? Is it simply a stupid person or a buffoon; or does the term have a deeper, moral dimension?
2. Granted that Proverbs 7 was originally addressed to boys, how can its message be redirected in contemporary society for the teaching of girls also?
3. Briefly describe the teaching of Proverbs on wealth.
4. Proverbs has a practical message. How does this supplement the more "spiritual" teachings of the Bible?

Sources for Additional Study

Alden Robert L. Proverbs. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1983.

Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Poetic Books of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody, 1979.

Draper, James T., Jr. Proverbs. Wheaton: Tyndale, 1971.

Garrett, Duane A. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs. New American Commentary, 1993.

Kidner, Derek. Proverbs. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1975.